Countertransference

Countertransference, in psychotherapy, refers to a therapist's redirection of feelings towards a patient or becoming emotionally entangled with them. This concept is central to the understanding of therapeutic dynamics in psychotherapy.

Early 20th century

Countertransference (German: Gegenübertragung),^[1] originally described by Sigmund Freud in 1910, refers to a therapist's unconscious feelings influenced by their patient. Freud recognized this as an ongoing challenge for therapists, stating the need for therapists to be aware and in control of these feelings.^[2] While Freud mainly saw countertransference as a personal issue for the therapist, his private correspondence indicates a deeper interest and understanding of its complexities.^[3]^[4] This concept broadened to include unconscious reactions, by the unconscious mind, shaped by the therapist's own history, which could impede objectivity and limit therapeutic effectiveness. For example, a therapist might unconsciously want a patient to succeed due to personal connections, leading to a biased approach in therapy.^[5]^[6]^[7]^[8]

The psychoanalytic community widely acknowledged the risks associated with countertransference. Carl Jung, Eric Berne, and Jacques Lacan, among others, highlighted its potential to complicate the therapeutic relationship.^[9]^[10] This understanding encompassed not only the therapist's unconscious responses rooted in their personal history but also their unconscious hostile or erotic feelings towards a patient.^[11]

Examples

For example, a therapist might subconsciously project their parental role onto a patient, especially if the patient is reminiscent of their own children. For instance, a therapist whose children are in university might overly empathize with a patient's academic struggles. This bias, even when well-intentioned, can lead to what's termed a "countertransference cure." This occurs when therapy outcomes are driven more by the therapist's needs than the patient's, resulting in the patient conforming to the therapist's expectations. This compliance can suppress the patients authentic feelings and needs, creating a 'false self' or a facade of improvement rather than genuine progress.^[11]

In another example, the therapist might transfer unresolved personal issues onto the patient. For example, a therapist who lacked attention from their father might perceive a patient's independent behavior as a form of rejection, an example of transference. This can lead to feelings of resentment towards the patient, a phenomenon known as the 'narrow perspective' of countertransference. In this scenario, the therapist's unresolved feelings cloud their professional judgment, potentially hindering the therapeutic process.^[12]

Mid-20th century

In the 20th century, the perspectives of Carl Jung, Heinrich Racker, and Paula Heimann significantly enriched the understanding of countertransference in psychotherapy, each contributing unique insights into its role and impact. This period marked a shift from viewing countertransference merely as an interference to recognizing it as a critical part of the therapeutic process and a potential source of valuable insights.

Jung explored the idea that a therapist's own emotional wounds and experiences contribute to their ability to empathize with and heal their patients. He famously used the metaphor of the "wounded physician," suggesting that a therapist's personal suffering and healing journey can deepen their understanding and effectiveness in treating others. According to Jung, it is precisely the therapist's own hurt that informs and enhances their healing capabilities. This perspective implies that personal experiences, including those that are painful, can be a source of strength and insight in the therapeutic process.^[13]

Racker emphasized the dangers inherent in repressing countertransference. He warned that ignoring or denying these feelings can complicate the therapy process, making it less effective. Racker believed that the unacknowledged countertransference becomes entangled in what he called "the mythology of the analytic situation," implying that it can create a false narrative or dynamic in the therapeutic relationship. His perspective suggests that acknowledging and understanding countertransference is crucial for an authentic and effective therapeutic process.^[14]

Heimann highlighted that countertransference is not just a reaction originating within the therapist, but also a response to the patient's personality and behaviors. In her view, countertransference is an integral part of the therapeutic relationship and is, in part, shaped by the patient. This concept implies that the therapist's feelings and reactions are not solely personal but are also influenced by the patient's characteristics and the interaction between the two. Heimann's approach emphasizes the interactive and co-created nature of the therapeutic relationship.^[15]

Together, these perspectives underscore the complexity of countertransference, highlighting its role as both a personal response and an interactive phenomenon within the therapeutic relationship. They also point to the importance of therapists' self-awareness and the need to integrate their experiences into their professional practice.

Late 20th-century

By the late 20th century, the distinction between 'personal countertransference' (related to the therapist's issues) and 'diagnostic response' (indicating something about the patient) became prominent. This era acknowledged the clinical usefulness of countertransference, underscoring the need to differentiate between reactions that provide insights into the patient's psychology and those reflecting the therapist's personal issues.

Distinction between personal and diagnostic countertransference

A key development was the distinction between 'personal countertransference' and 'diagnostic countertransference.' Personal countertransference involves the therapist's own emotional responses and unresolved issues. In contrast, diagnostic countertransference refers to the therapist's reactions that provide insights into the patient's psychological state. This distinction highlights the dual nature of countertransference: it can stem from the therapist's personal experiences or be a response to the patient's behavior and psychological needs.^[16]

The concept of 'neurotic countertransference' (or 'illusory countertransference') was also distinguished from 'countertransference proper.' Neurotic countertransference is more about the therapist's unresolved personal issues, while countertransference proper is a more balanced and clinically useful response. This differentiation has been widely accepted across various psychoanalytic schools, though some, like followers of Jacques Lacan, view countertransference as a form of resistance, potentially the most significant resistance posed by the analyst.^[17]^[18]^[19]

Contemporary understanding of countertransference

In contemporary practice, countertransference is generally seen as a phenomenon co-created by both the therapist and the patient. This view acknowledges that the patient, through transference, influences the therapist to assume roles that align with the patient's internal world. However, the therapist's personal history and personality traits also color these roles. Thus, countertransference becomes a complex interplay of both participants' psychologies.

Therapists are encouraged to use countertransference as a therapeutic tool. By reflecting on their responses and differentiating between their personal feelings and those elicited by the patient's behavior, therapists can gain valuable insights into the therapeutic dynamic. This self-awareness helps in understanding the roles being played in therapy, and the meanings behind these interpersonal interactions.

However, with this understanding comes a caution: therapists must remain vigilant about the dangers of unresolved countertransference, which can disrupt the therapeutic relationship. In modern psychotherapy, transference and countertransference are often seen as inextricably linked, creating a 'total situation' that defines the therapeutic encounter.

This evolved understanding underscores the importance of self-awareness and continuous self-reflection in therapeutic practice, ensuring that countertransference is managed effectively for the benefit of the therapeutic process.^[20]^[21]^[22]

Twenty-first-century developments

Contemporary understanding recognizes that most countertransference reactions are a mix of personal and diagnostic aspects, requiring careful discernment. The field now views countertransference as a jointly created phenomenon between the therapist and patient, with the patient influencing the therapist to adopt roles aligned with their internal world, colored by the therapist's personality.^[23]^[24]^[25]

Body-centred countertransference

Recent research, particularly in Ireland, has explored body-centred countertransference in female trauma therapists. This phenomenon involves physical responses in therapists and has been linked to mirror neurons and automatic empathy. Researchers at NUI Galway and University College Dublin have developed a scale to measure these responses, shedding light on the somatic aspects of countertransference in therapeutic settings.^[26]^[27]^[28]^[29]^[30]^[31]

Notes

^ Laplanche, Jean; Pontalis, Jean-Bertrand (1988) [1973]. "Counter-Transference (pp. 92-93)". The Language of Psycho-analysis (reprint, revised ed.). London: Karnac Books. ISBN 978-0-946-43949-2.
^ W. McGuire ed., The Freud/Jung Letters (1974) p. 231
^ Neil R. Carlson & C.Donald Heth page 595
^ Laplanche, J & Pontalis, J-B. (1973) The Language of Psycho-Analysis p. 92
^ Freud, quoted in Peter Gay, Freud: A life for our time(London 1989) p. 302 and p. 254
^ J. Holmes (2014) 'Countertransference before Heimann: An historical exploration', Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association
^ Annie Reich, quoted in Patrick Casement, Further learning from the patient (London 1997), p. 177n
^ C. G. Jung, Analytical Psychology: its Theory and Practice(London 1976) p. 159 and p. 157
^ Eric Berne, What Do You Say after You Say Hello? (London 1975), p. 352
^ Jacques Lacan, Ecrits: A Selection(London 1997) p. 229-230
^ ^a ^b Patrick Casement, On Learning from the Patient (London 1990), p. 174
^ Gabbard, Glen O. (1999). Countertransference Issues in Psychiatric Treatment. American Psychiatric Press. p. 1. ISBN 9780880489591.
^ Jung quoted in Anthony Stevens, Jung (Oxford 1994) p. 110
^ Casement, Further learning p. 12
^ Robert Hinshelwood and Susan Robinson, Introducing Melanie Klein (Cambridge 2006) p. 151
^ Casement, Further learning p. 8 and p. 165
^ "Aaron Green", quoted in Janet Malcolm, Psychoanalysis: the impossible profession(London 1988), p. 115
^ Mario Jacoby, The Analytic Encounter (Canada 1984) p. 38
^ Jean-Michel Quinodoz, Reading Freud (London 2005) p. 72
^ Gabbard, Glen O. (1999). Countertransference Issues in Psychiatric Treatment. American Psychiatric Press. p. 3. ISBN 9780880489591.
^ Quinodoz, Reading Freud p. 71
^ Casement, Learning
^ Michael Jacobs, Psychodynamic Counselling in Action(London 2006), p. 146
^ Jan Grant and Jim Crawley, Transference and Projection (Buckingham 2002), p. 50
^ James S. Grotstein, But at the Same Time and on Another Level (London 2009) p. 38
^ Egan, J. & Carr, A. (2005). Burnour in female counsellor/therapists of the NCS: Studies I,II and III. Papers presented at the 35th Annual conferenceof the psychological society of Ireland, Derry, Nov 17-20th
^ Egan, J. & Carr, A. (2008). Body-centred countertransference in female trauma therapists. Eisteach, 8, 22-27.
^ Body-centred countertransference in female trauma therapists Archived 2014-04-08 at the Wayback Machine Research Repository UCD, Egan, Jonathan; Carr, Alan, Irish Association for Counselling and Psychotherapy, Éisteacht, 8 (1), 24-27, 2008–08 – pp 5,6
^ Booth, A., Trimble, T., & Egan, J. (2010). body-centred countertransference in a sample of Irish Clinical Psychologists. The Irish Psychologist, 36, 284-289.
^ Egan, J. & Carr, A. (2008). Body-centred countertransference in female trauma therapists. Eisteach, 8, 22-27
^ Rothschild, B. (2006). Help for the helper: self-care strategies for managing burnout and stress. London: W. W. Norton & Company.

Bibliography

D. W. Winnicott : 'Hate in the countertransference' in Collected Papers: through Paediatrics to Psychoanalysis (London 1958)
Alberto Stefana: History of Countertransference. From Freud to the British Object Relations School, Publisher: Routledge, 2017, ISBN 978-1138214613
Margaret Little: Transference Neurosis and Transference Psychosis, Publisher: Jason Aronson; 1993, ISBN 1-56821-074-4
Harold Searles: Countertransference and related subjects; selected papers., Publisher New York, International Universities Press, 1979, ISBN 0-8236-1085-3
K. Maroda: The Power of Countertransference: Innovation in Analytic Technique (Chichester 1991)
D. Sedgwick, The Wounded Healer: Countertransference from a Jungian Perspective (London 1994)
Groves, James. (Date). 'Taking care of the hateful patient'. New England Journal of Medicine, Vol. 298 No. 16
Joseph J. Sandler, 'Countertransference and role-responsiveness', International Review of Psycho-Analysis (1976) 3: 43-7

External links

[1] Laplanche, Jean; Pontalis, Jean-Bertrand (1988) [1973]. "Counter-Transference (pp. 92-93)". The Language of Psycho-analysis (reprint, revised ed.). London: Karnac Books. ISBN 978-0-946-43949-2.

[2] W. McGuire ed., The Freud/Jung Letters (1974) p. 231

[3] Neil R. Carlson & C.Donald Heth page 595

[4] Laplanche, J & Pontalis, J-B. (1973) The Language of Psycho-Analysis p. 92

[5] Freud, quoted in Peter Gay, Freud: A life for our time(London 1989) p. 302 and p. 254

[6] J. Holmes (2014) 'Countertransference before Heimann: An historical exploration', Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association

[7] Annie Reich, quoted in Patrick Casement, Further learning from the patient (London 1997), p. 177n

[8] C. G. Jung, Analytical Psychology: its Theory and Practice(London 1976) p. 159 and p. 157

[9] Eric Berne, What Do You Say after You Say Hello? (London 1975), p. 352

[10] Jacques Lacan, Ecrits: A Selection(London 1997) p. 229-230

[:0-11] Patrick Casement, On Learning from the Patient (London 1990), p. 174

[12] Gabbard, Glen O. (1999). Countertransference Issues in Psychiatric Treatment. American Psychiatric Press. p. 1. ISBN 9780880489591.

[13] Jung quoted in Anthony Stevens, Jung (Oxford 1994) p. 110

[14] Casement, Further learning p. 12

[15] Robert Hinshelwood and Susan Robinson, Introducing Melanie Klein (Cambridge 2006) p. 151

[16] Casement, Further learning p. 8 and p. 165

[17] "Aaron Green", quoted in Janet Malcolm, Psychoanalysis: the impossible profession(London 1988), p. 115

[18] Mario Jacoby, The Analytic Encounter (Canada 1984) p. 38

[19] Jean-Michel Quinodoz, Reading Freud (London 2005) p. 72

[20] Gabbard, Glen O. (1999). Countertransference Issues in Psychiatric Treatment. American Psychiatric Press. p. 3. ISBN 9780880489591.

[21] Quinodoz, Reading Freud p. 71

[22] Casement, Learning

[23] Michael Jacobs, Psychodynamic Counselling in Action(London 2006), p. 146

[24] Jan Grant and Jim Crawley, Transference and Projection (Buckingham 2002), p. 50

[25] James S. Grotstein, But at the Same Time and on Another Level (London 2009) p. 38

[26] Egan, J. & Carr, A. (2005). Burnour in female counsellor/therapists of the NCS: Studies I,II and III. Papers presented at the 35th Annual conferenceof the psychological society of Ireland, Derry, Nov 17-20th

[27] Egan, J. & Carr, A. (2008). Body-centred countertransference in female trauma therapists. Eisteach, 8, 22-27.

[28] Body-centred countertransference in female trauma therapists Archived 2014-04-08 at the Wayback Machine Research Repository UCD, Egan, Jonathan; Carr, Alan, Irish Association for Counselling and Psychotherapy, Éisteacht, 8 (1), 24-27, 2008–08 – pp 5,6

[29] Booth, A., Trimble, T., & Egan, J. (2010). body-centred countertransference in a sample of Irish Clinical Psychologists. The Irish Psychologist, 36, 284-289.

[30] Egan, J. & Carr, A. (2008). Body-centred countertransference in female trauma therapists. Eisteach, 8, 22-27

[31] Rothschild, B. (2006). Help for the helper: self-care strategies for managing burnout and stress. London: W. W. Norton & Company.

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