Jump to content

Senegal

Edit links
Coordinates: 14°N 14°W / 14°N 14°W / 14; -14
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from ISO 3166-1:SN)
This article is about the country. For the river, see Senegal River.

Republic of Senegal
République du Sénégal (French)
Réewum Senegaal (Wolof)[1]
Ndenndaandi Senegaal (Pulaar)
Motto: "Un Peuple, Un But, Une Foi" (French)
"One People, One Goal, One Faith"
Anthem: 
"Le Lion rouge"
"The Red Lion"
Location of Senegal (dark green)
Location of Senegal (dark green)
Capital
and largest city
Dakar
14°40′N 17°25′W / 14.667°N 17.417°W / 14.667; -17.417
Official languagesFrench[2]
National languages
Lingua franca
Ethnic groups
(2019)[2]
Religion
(2019)[2]
Demonym(s)Senegalese
GovernmentUnitary presidential republic[6]
• President
Bassirou Diomaye Faye
Ousmane Sonko
Amadou Mame Diop
LegislatureNational Assembly
Independence
• Republic established
25 November 1958
• Independence from France[d]
20 June 1960
• Withdrawal from
the Mali Federation
20 August 1960
• Dissolution of the Senegambia Confederation
30 September 1989
Area
• Total
196,722[2] km2 (75,955 sq mi) (86th)
• Water (%)
2.1
Population
• 2024 estimate
18,847,519[2] (68th)
GDP (PPP)2023 estimate
• Total
Increase $78.547 billion[7] (106th)
• Per capita
Increase $4,324[7] (156th)
GDP (nominal)2023 estimate
• Total
Increase $31.141 billion[7] (111th)
• Per capita
Increase $1,714[7] (157th)
Gini (2011)40.3[8]
medium inequality
HDI (2022)Increase 0.517[9]
low (169th)
CurrencyWest African CFA franc (XOF)
Time zoneUTC (GMT)
Date formatdd/mm/yyyy
Drives onright
Calling code+221
ISO 3166 codeSN
Internet TLD.sn

Senegal,[e] officially the Republic of Senegal,[f] is the westernmost country in West Africa, situated on the Atlantic Ocean coastline. Senegal is bordered by Mauritania to the north, Mali to the east, Guinea to the southeast and Guinea-Bissau to the southwest. Senegal nearly surrounds The Gambia, a country occupying a narrow sliver of land along the banks of the Gambia River, which separates Senegal's southern region of Casamance from the rest of the country.[12][13] Senegal also shares a maritime border with Cape Verde. Senegal's economic and political capital is Dakar.

Senegal is the westernmost country in the mainland of the Old World, or Afro-Eurasia.[14] It owes its name to the Senegal River, which borders it to the east and north.[15] The climate is typically Sahelian, though there is a rainy season. Senegal covers a land area of almost 197,000 square kilometres (76,000 sq mi) and has a population of around 18 million.[16][17] The state is a unitary presidential republic; since the country's foundation in 1960, it has been recognized as one of the most stable countries on the African continent.[18] On the 2023 V-Dem Democracy Indices, Senegal is ranked 52nd in electoral democracy worldwide and 4th in electoral democracy in Africa.[19]

The state was formed as part of the independence of French West Africa from French colonial rule. Because of this history, French is the official language, but it is understood by only a minority of the population.[20] Over 30 languages are spoken in Senegal. Wolof is the most widely spoken one, with 80% of the population speaking it as a first or second language,[21] acting as Senegal's lingua franca alongside French. Like other African nations, the country includes a wide mix of ethnic and linguistic communities, with the largest being the Wolof, Fula, and Serer people. Senegalese people are predominantly Muslim.[22]

Senegal is classified as a heavily indebted poor country, with a relatively low ranking on the Human Development Index (170th out of 191). Most of the population lives on the coast and works in agriculture or other food industries; other major industries include mining, tourism, and services.[23] The country does not have notable natural resources, but the basis of its development lies in education,[clarify] where almost half the state's budget is spent.[24] Senegal is a member state of the African Union, the United Nations, the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), Organisation internationale de la Francophonie, the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, and the Community of Sahel–Saharan States. In the world of motor sports, Senegal is known for the Paris–Dakar Rally.[25]

Etymology

[edit]

The country of Senegal is named after the Senegal River. The name of the river may derive from a Portuguese transliteration of the name of the Zenaga, also known as the Sanhaja.[26] Alternatively, it could be a combination of the supreme deity in Serer religion (Rog Sene) and o gal meaning body of water in the Serer language. French author and priest David Boilat put forward the theory that the name derives from the Wolof phrase "sunuu gaal", which means "our canoe".[27]

History

[edit]
Main article: History of Senegal

Early and pre-colonial eras

[edit]

Archaeological findings throughout the area indicate that Senegal was inhabited in prehistoric times and has been continuously occupied by various ethnic groups. Some kingdoms were created around the seventh century: Takrur in the sixth century, Namandiru and the Jolof Empire during the 13th and 14th centuries. Eastern Senegal was once part of the Ghana Empire.

Islam was introduced through Toucouleur and Soninke contact with the Almoravid dynasty of the Maghreb, who in turn propagated it with the help of the Almoravids and Toucouleur allies. This movement faced resistance from ethnicities of traditional religions, the Serers in particular.[28][29]

In the 13th and 14th centuries, the area came under the influence of the empires to the east; the Jolof Empire of Senegal was also founded during this time. In the Senegambia region, between 1300 and 1900, close to one-third of the population was enslaved, typically as a result of being taken captive in warfare.[30]

In the 14th century the Jolof Empire grew more powerful, having united Cayor and the kingdoms of Baol, Siné, Saloum, Waalo, Futa Tooro and Bambouk, or much of present-day West Africa. The empire was a voluntary confederacy of various states rather than being built on military conquest.[31][32] The empire was founded by Ndiadiane Ndiaye, a part Serer[33][34] and part Toucouleur, who was able to form a coalition with many ethnicities, but collapsed around 1549 with the defeat and killing of Lele Fouli Fak by Amari Ngone Sobel Fall.

Colonial era

[edit]
Main articles: Senegambia (Dutch West India Company) and French conquest of Senegal
The Portuguese Empire was the first European power to colonize Senegal, beginning with the arrival of Dinis Dias in 1444 at Gorée Island and ending in 1888, when the Portuguese gave Ziguinchor to the French.

In the mid-15th century, the Portuguese landed on the Senegal coastline, followed by traders representing other countries, including the French.[35] Various European powers—Portugal, the Netherlands, and Great Britain—competed for trade in the area from the 15th century onward.

In 1677, France gained control of what had become a minor departure point in the Atlantic slave trade: the island of Gorée next to modern Dakar, used as a base to purchase slaves from the warring chiefdoms on the mainland.[36][37]

European missionaries introduced Christianity to Senegal and the Casamance in the 19th century. It was only in the 1850s that the French began to expand onto the Senegalese mainland, after they abolished slavery and began promoting an abolitionist doctrine,[38] adding native kingdoms like the Waalo, Cayor, Baol, and Jolof. French colonists under Governor Louis Faidherbe progressively invaded and took over all the kingdoms, except the Serer Kingdoms of Sine and Saloum.[31][39]

French slave traders in Gorée, 18th century

Yoro Dyao was in command of the canton of Foss-Galodjina and was set over Wâlo (Ouâlo) by Louis Faidherbe,[40] where he served as a chief from 1861 to 1914.[41] Senegalese resistance to the French expansion was led in part by Lat-Dior, Damel of Cayor, and Maad a Sinig Kumba Ndoffene Famak Joof (the Maad a Sinig, King of Sine), resulting in the famous Battle of Logandème―the battle in which the Serer King of Sine went to war against the mighty French colonial empire, where the French decided to take revenge against Sine following their humiliating defeat at the Battle of Djilor. The Battle of Logandème was the first battle on Senegambian soil where the French decided to employ cannonball.[42][43][44][45]

In 1915, over 300 Senegalese came under Australian command, ahead of the taking of Damascus by Australians, before the expected arrival of the famed Lawrence of Arabia. French and British diplomacy in the area were thrown into disarray.[citation needed]

The Battle of Dakar (September 23–25, 1940) was an unsuccessful attempt by the Allies to capture the strategic port and overthrow the pro-German Vichy French administration in the colony.[46]

On 25 November 1958, Senegal became an autonomous republic within the French Community.[47]

Independence

[edit]
The short-lived Mali Federation

In January 1959, Senegal and the French Sudan merged to form the Mali Federation, which became fully independent on 20 June 1960, as a result of a transfer of power agreement signed with France on 4 April 1960. Due to internal political difficulties, the Federation broke up on 20 August 1960 when Senegal and French Sudan (renamed the Republic of Mali) each proclaimed independence.

Léopold Sédar Senghor was elected Senegal's first president in August 1960. Pro-African, Senghor advocated a brand of African socialism.[48]

After the breakup of the Mali Federation, Senghor and Prime Minister Mamadou Dia governed together under a parliamentary system. In December 1962, their political rivalry led to an attempted coup by Dia. The coup was put down without bloodshed and Dia was arrested and imprisoned. Senegal adopted a new constitution that consolidated the President's power.

Senghor was considerably more tolerant of opposition than most African leaders became in the 1960s. Nonetheless, political activity was somewhat restricted for a time. Senghor's party, the Senegalese Progressive Union (now the Socialist Party of Senegal), was the only legally permitted party from 1965 until 1975. In the latter year, Senghor allowed the formation of two opposition parties that began operation in 1976—a Marxist party (the African Independence Party) and a liberal party (the Senegalese Democratic Party).

The 1960s and early 1970s saw the continued and persistent violating of Senegal's borders by the Portuguese military from Portuguese Guinea. In response, Senegal petitioned the United Nations Security Council in 1963, 1965, 1969 (in response to shelling by Portuguese artillery), 1971 and finally in 1972.

1980 to present

[edit]

In 1980, Senghor decided to retire from politics. The next year, he transferred power in 1981 to his hand-picked successor, Abdou Diouf. Former prime minister Mamadou Dia, who was Senghor's rival, ran for election in 1983 against Diouf, but lost. Senghor moved to France, where he died at the age of 95.

In the 1980s, Boubacar Lam discovered Senegalese oral history that was initially compiled by the Tuculor noble, Yoro Dyâo, not long after World War I, which documented migrations into West Africa from the Nile Valley; ethnic groups, from the Senegal River to the Niger Delta, retained traditions of having an eastern origin.[49]

Senegal joined with The Gambia to form the nominal Senegambia Confederation on 1 February 1982. However, the union was dissolved in 1989. Despite peace talks, a southern separatist group (Movement of Democratic Forces of Casamance or MFDC) in the Casamance region has clashed sporadically with government forces since 1982 in the Casamance conflict. In the early 21st century, violence has subsided and President Macky Sall held talks with rebels in Rome in December 2012.[50]

Abdou Diouf was president between 1981 and 2000. He encouraged broader political participation, reduced government involvement in the economy, and widened Senegal's diplomatic engagements, particularly with other developing nations. Domestic politics on occasion spilled over into street violence, border tensions, and a violent separatist movement in the southern region of the Casamance. Nevertheless, Senegal's commitment to democracy and human rights strengthened. Abdou Diouf served four terms as president.

During the Gulf War, over 500 Senegalese participated in the Battle of Khafji and the unexpected Liberation of Kuwait campaign, under the command of the U.S.-led coalition.[citation needed]

In the presidential election of 1999, opposition leader Abdoulaye Wade defeated Diouf in an election deemed free and fair by international observers. Senegal experienced its second peaceful transition of power, and its first from one political party to another. On 30 December 2004 President Wade announced that he would sign a peace treaty with the separatist group in the Casamance region. This, however, has yet to be implemented. There was a round of talks in 2005, but the results have not yet yielded a resolution.

In March 2012, the incumbent president Abdoulaye Wade lost the presidential election and Macky Sall was elected as the new President of Senegal.[51] President Macky Sall was re-elected in 2019 elections. The presidential term was reduced from seven years to five.[52]

Since 3 March 2021, Senegal has been rocked by a series of mass protests in response to the arrest of Ousmane Sonko for alleged rape and mishandling of the COVID-19 pandemic. In June 2023, the response to the protests turned increasingly violent, with Amnesty International counting 23 fatalities, most of which were caused by bullets fired by police or armed police collaborators.[53]

In March 2024, Opposition candidate Bassirou Diomaye Faye won the Senegal's presidential election over candidate of the ruling coalition, becoming the youngest president in Senegal's history.[54]

Government and politics

[edit]
Main article: Politics of Senegal
Macky Sall, President of Senegal (2012–2024)
Abdoulaye Wade, President of Senegal (2000–2012)

Senegal is a republic with a presidency; the president is elected every five years as of 2016, previously being seven years from independence to 2001, five years from 2001 to 2008, and seven years again from 2008 to 2016, by adult voters. The first president, Léopold Sédar Senghor, was a poet and writer, and was the first African elected to the Académie française. Senegal's second president, Abdou Diouf, later served as general secretary of the Organisation de la Francophonie. The third president was Abdoulaye Wade, a lawyer. The fourth president was Macky Sall, elected in March 2012 and reelected in February 2019.[55] On March 25, 2024, Bassirou Diomaye Faye became the fifth democratically elected president.[56]

Senegal has more than 80 political parties. The unicameral parliament consists of the National Assembly, which has 150 seats (a Senate was in place from 1999 to 2001 and 2007 to 2012).[6] An independent judiciary also exists in Senegal. The nation's highest courts that deal with business issues are the constitutional council and the court of justice, members of which are named by the president.

Political culture

[edit]

Currently, Senegal has a quasi-democratic political culture, one of the more successful post-colonial democratic transitions in Africa. Local administrators are appointed and held accountable by the president. Marabouts, religious leaders of the various Muslim brotherhoods of Senegal, have also exercised a strong political influence in the country especially during Wade's presidency. In 2009, Freedom House downgraded Senegal's status from "Free" to "Partially Free", based on increased centralisation of power in the executive. By 2014, it had recovered its Free status.[57]

In 2008, Senegal finished in 12th position on the Ibrahim Index of African Governance.[58] The Ibrahim Index is a comprehensive measure of African governance (limited to sub-Saharan Africa until 2008), based on a number of different variables which reflect the success with which governments deliver essential political goods to their citizens. When the Northern African countries were added to the index in 2009, Senegal's 2008 position was retroactively downgraded to 15th place (with Tunisia, Egypt and Morocco placing ahead of Senegal). As of 2012, Senegal's Ibrahim Index rank has declined another point to 16th of 52 African countries.

On 22 February 2011, Senegal severed diplomatic ties with Iran, saying it supplied rebels with weapons which killed Senegalese troops in the Casamance conflict.[59]

The 2012 presidential election was controversial due to President Wade's candidacy, as the opposition argued he should not be considered eligible to run again. Several youth opposition movements, including M23 and Y'en a Marre, emerged in June 2011. In the end, Macky Sall of the Alliance for the Republic won, and Wade conceded the election to Sall. This peaceful and democratic transition was hailed by many foreign observers, such as the EU[60] as a show of "maturity".

On 19 September 2012, lawmakers voted to do away with the Senate to save an estimated $15 million.[61]

In August 2017, the ruling party won a landslide victory in the parliamentary election. President Macky Sall's ruling coalition took 125 seats in the 165-seat National Assembly.[62] In 2019 president Macky Sall easily won re-election in the first round.[63] On 2 April 2024, his successor Bassirou Diomaye Faye was sworn in.[64]

Leadership in World governance initiatives

[edit]

Senegal has been one of the signatories of the agreement to convene a convention for drafting a world constitution.[65][66] As a result, in 1968, for the first time in human history, a World Constituent Assembly convened to draft and adopt the Constitution for the Federation of Earth.[67] Léopold Sédar Senghor, then president of Senegal signed the agreement to convene a World Constituent Assembly.[68]

Administrative divisions

[edit]
Main articles: Regions of Senegal, Departments of Senegal, Arrondissements of Senegal, and Communes of Senegal
Regions of Senegal

Senegal is subdivided into 14 regions,[69] each administered by a Conseil Régional (Regional Council) elected by population weight at the Arrondissement level. The country is further subdivided by 45 Départements, 113 Arrondissements (neither of which have administrative function) and by Collectivités Locales, which elect administrative officers.[70]

Regional capitals have the same name as their respective regions:

Foreign relations

[edit]
Further information: Foreign relations of Senegal

Senegal has a high profile in many international organizations and was a member of the UN Security Council in 1988–89 and 2015–2016. It was elected to the UN Commission on Human Rights in 1997. Friendly to the West, especially to the United States, Senegal has vigorously advocated for more assistance from developed countries to the Third World. The Foreign Minister of Senegal is Aïssata Tall Sall. She took office in November 2020.

Historically, Senegal has been close to France, its former colonizer, but this had caused a great amount of tension with the people and was one of the reasons why former President Macky Sall lost support. Senegalese often complained that Sall was consistently giving French companies priority contracts to extract Senegal's natural resources rather than giving the contracts to whoever offered Senegal the best deal. They also believed France was pushing Macky Sall to run for an unconstitutional third term. After debating whether to run a third time for months, Sall did not.[71]

Senegal enjoys mostly cordial relations with its neighbors. In spite of clear progress on other issues with Mauritania (border security, resource management, economic integration, etc.), an estimated 35,000 Mauritanian refugees (of the estimated 40,000 who were expelled from their home country in 1989) remain in Senegal.[72]Morocco–Senegal relations have also been courteous, as the new Bassirou Diomaye Faye invited the king of Morocco on his swearing ceremony in 2024.

Senegal is well integrated with the main bodies of the international community, including the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), the African Union (AU), and the Community of Sahel–Saharan States.

Senegal is the 84th most peaceful country in the world, according to the 2024 Global Peace Index.[73]

Military

[edit]
Land mines were widely used in the Casamance conflict between separatist rebels and the central government.

The Armed Forces of Senegal consist of about 17,000 personnel in the army, air force, navy, and gendarmerie. The Senegalese military receives most of its training, equipment, and support from France and the United States, and to a lesser extent Germany.

Military noninterference in political affairs has contributed to Senegal's stability since independence. Senegal has participated in many international and regional peacekeeping missions. Most recently, in 2000, Senegal sent a battalion to the Democratic Republic of Congo to participate in MONUC, the United Nations peacekeeping mission, and agreed to deploy a US-trained battalion to Sierra Leone for UNAMSIL, another UN peacekeeping mission.

In 2015, Senegal participated in the Saudi Arabian-led military intervention in Yemen against the Shia Houthis.[74]

Law

[edit]

Senegal is a secular state, as defined in its Constitution.[75]

To fight corruption, the government has created the National Anti-Corruption Office (OFNAC) and the Commission of Restitution and Recovery of Illegally Acquired Assets. According to Business Anti-Corruption Portal, President Sall created the OFNAC to replace the Commission Nationale de Lutte Contre la non-Transparence, la Corruption et la Concussion (CNLCC). It is said that the OFNAC represents a more effective tool for fighting corruption than the CNLCC established under former President Wade.[76] The mission of OFNAC is to fight corruption, embezzlement of public funds and fraud. OFNAC has the power of self-referral (own initiative investigation). OFNAC is composed of twelve members appointed by decree.

Homosexuality is illegal in Senegal.[77] According to 2013 survey by the Pew Research Center, 96% of Senegalese believe that homosexuality should not be accepted by society.[78] LGBTQ community members in Senegal report a strong feeling of being unsafe.[79]

Geography

[edit]
Main article: Geography of Senegal
Senegal map of Köppen climate classification
Landscape of Casamance

Senegal is located on the west of the African continent. It lies between latitudes 12° and 17°N, and longitudes 11° and 18°W.

Senegal is externally bounded by the Atlantic Ocean to the west, Mauritania to the north, Mali to the east, and Guinea and Guinea-Bissau to the south; internally it almost completely surrounds The Gambia, namely on the north, east and south, except for Gambia's short Atlantic coastline.

The Senegalese landscape consists mainly of the rolling sandy plains of the western Sahel which rise to foothills in the southeast. Here is also found Senegal's highest point, Baunez ridge situated 2.7 km southeast of Nepen Diakha at 648 m (2,126 ft).[80] The northern border is formed by the Senegal River; other rivers include the Gambia and Casamance Rivers. The capital Dakar lies on the Cap-Vert peninsula, the westernmost point of continental Africa.

The Cape Verde islands lie some 560 kilometres (350 mi) off the Senegalese coast, but Cap-Vert ("Cape Green") is a maritime placemark, set at the foot of "Les Mammelles", a 105-metre (344 ft) cliff resting at one end of the Cap-Vert peninsula onto which is settled Senegal's capital Dakar, and 1 kilometre (0.6 mi) south of the "Pointe des Almadies", the westernmost point in Africa.

Senegal contains four terrestrial ecoregions: Guinean forest-savanna mosaic, Sahelian Acacia savanna, West Sudanian savanna, and Guinean mangroves.[81] It had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 7.11/10, ranking it 56th globally out of 172 countries.[82]

Climate

[edit]
Main article: Geography of Senegal § Climate
Beach at N'Gor

Senegal has a tropical climate with pleasant heat throughout the year with well-defined dry and humid seasons that result from northeast winter winds and southwest summer winds. The dry season (December to April) is dominated by hot, dry, harmattan wind.[6] Dakar's annual rainfall of about 600 mm (24 in) occurs between June and October when maximum temperatures average 30 °C (86.0 °F) and minimums 24.2 °C (75.6 °F); December to February maximum temperatures average 25.7 °C (78.3 °F) and minimums 18 °C (64.4 °F).[83]

Interior temperatures are higher than along the coast (for example, average daily temperatures in Kaolack and Tambacounda for May are 30 °C (86.0 °F) and 32.7 °C (90.9 °F) respectively, compared to Dakar's 23.2 °C (73.8 °F) ),[84] and rainfall increases substantially farther south, exceeding 1,500 mm (59.1 in) annually in some areas.

In Tambacounda in the far interior, particularly on the border of Mali where desert begins, temperatures can reach as high as 54 °C (129.2 °F). The northernmost part of the country is the Lompoul desert that has a near hot desert climate, the central part has a hot semi-arid climate and the southernmost part has a tropical wet and dry climate. Senegal is mainly a sunny and dry country.

Economic impact of 2°C in Senegal

Climate change in Senegal will have wide reaching impacts on many aspects of life in Senegal. Climate change will cause an increase in average temperatures over west Africa by between 1.5 and 4 °C (3 °F and 7 °F) by mid-century, relative to 1986–2005.[85] Projections of rainfall indicate an overall decrease in rainfall and an increase in intense mega-storm events over the Sahel.[86][87] The sea level is expected to rise faster in West Africa than the global average.[88][89] Although Senegal is currently not a major contributor to global greenhouse gas emissions, it is one of the countries most vulnerable to climate change.[90][91]

Extreme drought is impacting agriculture, and causing food and job insecurity. More than 70% of the population is employed in the agricultural sector. Sea level rise and resulting coastal erosion is expected to cause damage to coastal infrastructure and displace a large percentage of the population living in coastal areas. Climate change also has the potential to increase land degradation that will likely increase desertification in eastern Senegal, leading to an expansion of the Sahara.[92]

Wildlife

[edit]
Main article: Wildlife of Senegal

Economy

[edit]
Main article: Economy of Senegal
Dakar, Senegal's place de l'Indépendance: a center of government, banking and trade. In the background is the commercial port and the tourist area, Gorée island.

The economy of Senegal is driven by mining, construction, tourism, fishing and agriculture, which are the main sources of employment in rural areas, despite abundant natural resources in iron, zircon, gas, gold, phosphates, and numerous oil discoveries recently. Senegal's economy gains most of its foreign exchange from fish, phosphates, groundnuts, tourism, and services. As one of the dominant parts of the economy, the agricultural sector of Senegal is highly vulnerable to environmental conditions, such as variations in rainfall and climate change, and changes in world commodity prices.

Dakar, the former capital of French West Africa, is also home to banks and other institutions which serve all of Francophone West Africa, and is a hub for shipping and transport in the region.

Senegal also has one of the best developed tourist industries in Africa. Senegal's economy depends on foreign assistance. It is a member of the World Trade Organization.

The main obstacles to the economic development of the country are its great corruption with inefficient justice, very slow administrative formalities, and a failing education sector.[93]
Historical development of real GDP per capita in Senegal and Gambia, since 1950

Industry and trade

[edit]
A proportional representation of Senegal exports, 2019

Three trans-African automobile routes pass through Senegal:

The main industries include food processing, mining, cement, artificial fertilizer, chemicals, textiles, refining imported petroleum, and tourism. Exports include fish, chemicals, cotton, fabrics, groundnuts, and calcium phosphate. The largest export markets as of 2020 are Mali (20.4%), Switzerland (12.2%), and India (8.3%).[94]

As a member of the West African Economic and Monetary Union (WAEMU), Senegal is working toward greater regional integration with a unified external tariff. Senegal is also a member of the Organization for the Harmonization of Business Law in Africa.[95]

Senegal achieved full Internet connectivity in 1996, creating a mini-boom in information technology-based services. Private activity now accounts for 82 percent of its GDP. On the negative side, Senegal faces deep-seated urban problems of chronic high unemployment.[96]

Senegal is a major recipient of international development assistance. Donors include the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), Japan, France and China. Over 4,000 Peace Corps Volunteers have served in Senegal since 1963.[97]

Agriculture

[edit]
This section is an excerpt from Agriculture in Senegal.[edit]
Cowpea vendors near Thies, Senegal

Agriculture is one of the dominant parts of Senegal's economy, even though Senegal lies within the drought-prone Sahel region. As only about 5% of the land is irrigated,[citation needed] Senegal continues to rely on rain-fed agriculture. Agriculture occupies about 75% of the workforce. Despite a relatively wide variety of agricultural production, the majority of farmers produce for subsistence needs. Millet, rice, corn, and sorghum are the primary food crops grown in Senegal. Production is subject to drought and threats of pests such as locusts, birds, fruit flies, and white flies.[98] Moreover, the effects of climate change in Senegal are expected to severely harm the agricultural economy due to extreme weather such as drought, as well as increased temperatures.[99]

Senegal is a net food importer, particularly for rice, which represents almost 75% of cereal imports. Peanuts, sugarcane, and cotton are important cash crops, and a wide variety of fruits and vegetables are grown for local and export markets. In 2006 gum arabic exports soared to $280 million, making it by far the leading agricultural export. Green beans, industrial tomato, cherry tomato, melon, and mango are Senegal's main vegetable cash crops. The Casamance region, isolated from the rest of Senegal by Gambia, is an important agriculture producing area, but without the infrastructure or transportation links to improve its capacity.[98]

Despite the lack of modernization of artisanal fishing, the fishing sector remains Senegal's main economic resource and major foreign exchange earner. The livestock and poultry sectors are relatively underdeveloped and have potential for modernization, development and growth. Senegal imports most of its milk and dairy products. The sector is inhibited due to low output and limited investments. The potential production of fauna and forest products is high and diversified and could, if well organized, benefit poor farmers in rural areas. Although the agricultural sector was impacted by a locust invasion in 2004, it has recovered and gross agricultural production is expected to increase by 6.1% in 2006 and 5.1% in 2007.[98]

Fishing

[edit]
Fishing boats in Dakar

Senegal has a 12-nautical-mile (22 km; 14 mi) exclusive fishing zone that has been regularly breached in recent years (as of 2014). It has been estimated that the country's fishermen lose 300,000 tonnes of fish each year to illegal fishing. The Senegalese government have tried to control the illegal fishing which is conducted by fishing trawlers, some of which are registered in Russia, Mauritania, Belize and Ukraine. In January 2014, a Russian trawler, Oleg Naydenov, was seized by Senegalese authorities close to the maritime border with Guinea-Bissau.[100]

Energy

[edit]
This section is an excerpt from Energy in Senegal.[edit]
Senegal electricity production by source

As of April 2020, the energy sector in Senegal has an installed capacity of 1431 megawatts (MW).[101] Energy is produced by private operators and sold to the Senelec energy corporation. According to a 2020 report by the International Energy Agency, Senegal had nearly 70% of the country connected to the national grid.[102] Current government strategies for electrification include investments in off-grid solar and connection to the grid.[101][102]

Most of the energy production is from fossil fuels, mostly diesel and gas (733 of 864 MW).[101] An increasing amount of the energy production comes from sustainable sources, such as Manantali Dam in Mali and a new wind farm in Thiès opened in 2020—however, it is still a small portion of the total production. Despite increases in production in the 2010s, the economy is frequently hindered by energy shortages compared to demand.

Demographics

[edit]
Main article: Demographics of Senegal
Senegal's population from 1960 to 2017 (in millions)

Senegal has a population of around 18 million, about 42 percent of whom live in rural areas. Density in these areas varies from about 77 inhabitants per square kilometre (200/sq mi) in the west-central region to 2 per square kilometre (5.2/sq mi) in the arid eastern section.

Women

[edit]
Main article: Women in Senegal

Senegal ratified the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, adopted by the United Nations General Assembly, as well as the additional protocol. Senegal is also a signatory of the African Charter of Human and People's Rights, which was adopted during the 2003 African Union Summit. However, feminists have been critical of the government's lack of action in enforcing the protocols, conventions and other texts that have been signed as a means of protecting women's rights.[citation needed]

Ethnic groups

[edit]
Main article: Ethnic groups in Senegal

Senegal has a wide variety of ethnic groups and, as in most West African countries, several languages are widely spoken. According to "CIA World Factbook: Senegal" (2019 estimates), the ethnic groups are Wolof (39%); Fula (probably including the Halpulaar speaking Toucouleur) (27.5%); Serer group (probably including the Serer Cangin peoples) (16%); Mandinka (4.9%); Jola (4.2%); Soninke (2.4%); other 5.4% (includes Europeans and persons of Lebanese descent), and other minor ethnic groups like the Bassari, Maures or (Naarkajors).[103]

Ethnic groups in Senegal

  Wolof (39%)
  Fulani (27.5%)
  Serer (16%)
  Mandinka (4.9%)
  Jola (4.2%)
  Sonike (2.4%)
  Other (6%)

There are also tens of thousands of Mauritanian refugees in Senegal, primarily in the country's north.[104]

According to the World Refugee Survey 2008, published by the U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants, Senegal has a population of refugees and asylum seekers numbering approximately 23,800 in 2007. The majority of this population (20,200) is from Mauritania. Refugees live in N'dioum, Dodel, and small settlements along the Senegal River valley.[105]

Languages

[edit]
Main article: Languages of Senegal

French is the official language, spoken by all those who have spent several years in the educational system, in which French is used as the medium of instruction (Koranic schools are also popular, but Arabic is less widely spoken outside of the context of recitation). Overall, speakers of French were estimated to make up 26% of the population in 2022.[106] During the 15th century, many European territories started to engage in trade in Senegal. In the 19th century, France increased its colonial influence in Senegal and thus the number of French-speaking people multiplied continuously. French was ratified as the official language of Senegal in 1960 when the country achieved independence.

Most people also speak their own ethnic language while, especially in Dakar, Wolof is the lingua franca.[107] Pulaar is spoken by the Fulas and Toucouleur. The Serer language is widely spoken by both Serers and non-Serers (including President Sall, whose wife is Serer); so are the Cangin languages, whose speakers are ethnically Serers. Jola languages are widely spoken in the Casamance. Overall Senegal is home to around 39 distinct languages. Several have the legal status of "national languages": Balanta-Ganja, Arabic, Jola-Fonyi, Mandinka, Mandjak, Mankanya, Noon (Serer-Noon), Pulaar, Serer, Soninke, and Wolof.

English is taught as a foreign language in secondary schools and many graduate school programs, and it is the only subject matter that has a special office in the Ministry of Education.[108] Dakar hosts a couple of Bilingual schools which offer 50% of their syllabus in English. The Senegalese American Bilingual School (SABS), Yavuz Selim, and The West African College of the Atlantic (WACA) train thousands of fluent English speakers in four-year programs. English is widely used by the scientific community and in business, including by the Modou-Modou (illiterate, self-taught businessmen).[108]

Portuguese Creole, locally known as Portuguese, is a prominent minority language in Ziguinchor, regional capital of the Casamance, spoken by local Portuguese creoles and immigrants from Guinea-Bissau. The local Cape Verdean community speak a similar Portuguese creole, Cape Verdean Creole, and standard Portuguese. Portuguese was introduced in Senegal's secondary education in 1961 in Dakar by the country's first president, Léopold Sédar Senghor. It is currently available in most of Senegal and in higher education. It is especially prevalent in Casamance as it relates with the local cultural identity.[109]

Aerial view of Yoff Commune, Dakar

A variety of immigrant languages are spoken, such as Bambara (70,000), Mooré (37,000), Kabuverdiano (34,000), Krio (6,100), Vietnamese (2,500), and Portuguese (1,700), mostly in Dakar.[108]

While French is the sole official language, a rising Senegalese linguistic nationalist movement supports the integration of Wolof, the common vernacular language of the country, into the national constitution.[110]

Senegalese regions of Dakar, Diourbel, Fatick, Kaffrine, Kaolack, Kedougou, Kolda, Louga, Matam, Saint-Louis, Sedhiou, Tambacounda, Thies and Ziguinchor are members of the International Association of Francophone regions.

Largest cities

[edit]
See also: List of cities in Senegal

Dakar, the capital, is by far the largest city in Senegal, with over two million residents.[111] The second most populous city is Touba, a de jure communaute rurale (rural community), with over half a million people.[111]

 
 
Largest cities or towns in Senegal
According to the 2013 Census[112]
Rank Name Region Pop.
Dakar
Dakar 		1 Dakar Dakar 2,646,503 Pikine
Pikine
Kaolack
Kaolack
2 Touba Diourbel 753,315
3 Pikine Dakar 317,763
4 Kaolack Kaolack 233,708
5 M'bour Thiès 232,777
6 Rufisque Dakar 221,066
7 Ziguinchor Ziguinchor 205,294
8 Diourbel Diourbel 133,705
9 Tambacounda Tambacounda 107,293
10 Louga Louga 104,349

Religion

[edit]
Main article: Religion in Senegal

Religion in Senegal (2022, estimate)[113]

  Islam (97.2%)
  Christianity (2.7%)
  Other (0.1%)

Senegal is a secular state.[75] According to "CIA World Factbook: Senegal" Islam is the predominant religion in the country, practiced by 97.2% of the country's population; the Christian community, at 2.7% of the population, consists mostly of Roman Catholics but there are also diverse evangelicals denominations. Less than one percent has animist beliefs, particularly in the southeastern region of the country.[6] Some Serer people follow the Serer religion.[114][115] According to the Berkley Center, "approximately 95 percent of the population is Muslim and the other five percent is primarily Christian or animist."[116] Marloes Janson, of SOAS, University of London, and other scholars, posit that, in Senegal, Gambia, and many African countries where Islam is dominant, Muslim communities tend to syncretise Islam with Traditional African religions, leading to a distinctive "African Islam".[117]

According to a 2012 Pew demographic study, 55% of the Muslims in Senegal are Sunni of the Maliki madhhab with Sufi influences, whilst 27% are non-denominational Muslims.[118] Islamic communities in Senegal are generally organized around one of several Islamic Sufi orders called tariqas, headed by a khalif (xaliifa in Wolof, from Arabic khalīfa), who is usually a direct descendant of the group's founder; the study found that 92% of Senegalese Muslims belonged to a Sufi order. The two largest and most prominent Sufi tariqas in Senegal are the Tijaniyya, whose largest Senegalese sub-groups are based in the cities of Tivaouane and Kaolack and has broad following in West Africa outside of Senegal, and the Murīdiyya (Murid), who are based in the city of Touba and has a follower base mostly limited to within Senegal.[118]

A mosque in Saint-Louis.
Our Lady of Victories Cathedral, a Catholic Church in Dakar

The Halpulaar (Pulaar-speakers), composed of Fula people, a widespread group found along the Sahel from Chad to Senegal, and Toucouleurs, represent 23.8 percent of the population.[6] Historically, they were the first to become Muslim. Many of the Toucouleurs, or sedentary Halpulaar of the Senegal River Valley in the north, converted to Islam around a millennium ago and later contributed to Islam's propagation throughout Senegal. Success was gained among the Wolofs, but repulsed by the Serers. Most communities south of the Senegal River Valley, however, were not thoroughly Islamized. The Serer people stood out as one of this group, who spent over one thousand years resisting Islamization (see Serer history). Although many Serers are Christians or Muslim, their conversion to Islam in particular is very recent and came of free will rather than by force, after forced conversion had been unsuccessfully tried centuries earlier (see Battle of Fandane-Thiouthioune).[119]

The spread of formal Quranic school (called daara in Wolof) during the colonial period increased largely through the effort of the Tidjâniyya. In Murid communities, which place more emphasis on the work ethic than on literary Quranic studies, the term daara often applies to work groups devoted to working for a religious leader. Other Islamic groups include the much older Qādiriyya order and the Senegalese Laayeen order, which is prominent among the coastal Lebu. Today, most Senegalese children study at daaras for several years, memorizing as much of the Qur'an as they can. Some of them continue their religious studies at councils (majlis) or at the growing number of private Arabic schools and publicly funded Franco-Arabic schools.

Small Catholic communities are mainly found in coastal Serer, Jola, Mankanya and Balant populations, and in eastern Senegal among the Bassari and Coniagui. The Protestant churches are mainly attended by immigrants but during the second half of the 20th century Protestant churches led by Senegalese leaders from different ethnic groups have evolved. In Dakar Catholic and Protestant rites are practiced by the Lebanese, Cape Verdean, European, and American immigrant populations, and among certain Africans of other countries as well as by the Senegalese themselves. Although Islam is Senegal's majority religion, Senegal's first president, Léopold Sédar Senghor, was a Catholic Serer.

Serer religion encompasses a belief in a supreme deity called Roog (Koox among the Cangin), Serer cosmogony, cosmology and divination ceremonies such as the annual Xooy (or Khoy) ceremony presided over by the Serer Saltigues (high priests and priestesses). Senegambian (both Senegal and the Gambia) Muslim festivals such as Tobaski, Gamo, Koriteh, Weri Kor, etc., are all borrowed words from the Serer religion.[120] They were ancient Serer festivals rooted in Serer religion, not Islam.[120]

The Boukout is one of the Jola's religious ceremonies.

There are a small number of members of the Bani Israel tribe in the Senegalese bush that claim Jewish ancestry, though this is disputed.[121] The Mahayana branch of Buddhism in Senegal is followed by a very tiny portion of the expat Vietnamese community. The Bahá'í Faith in Senegal was established after 'Abdu'l-Bahá, the son of the founder of the religion, mentioned Africa as a place that should be more broadly visited by Bahá'ís.[122] The first Bahá'is to set foot in the territory of French West Africa that would become Senegal arrived in 1953.[123] The first Bahá'í Local Spiritual Assembly of Senegal was elected in 1966 in Dakar.[124] In 1975 the Bahá'í community elected the first National Spiritual Assembly of Senegal. The most recent estimate, by the Association of Religion Data Archives in a 2005 report details the population of Senegalese Bahá'ís at 22,000.[125]

Health

[edit]
Main article: Health in Senegal
Development of life expectancy

Life expectancy at birth was estimated to be 66.8 years in 2016 (64.7 years male, 68.7 years female).[126] Public expenditure on health was at 2.4 percent of the GDP in 2004, whereas private expenditure was at 3.5 percent.[127] Health expenditure was at US$72 (PPP) per capita in 2004.[127] The fertility rate ranged 5 to 5.3 between 2005 and 2013, with 4.1 in urban areas and 6.3 in rural areas, as official survey (6.4 in 1986 and 5.7 in 1997) point out.[128] There were six physicians per 100,000 persons in the early 2000s (decade).[127] Infant mortality in Senegal was 157 per 1,000 live births in 1950., but since then it has declined five-fold to 32 per 1,000 in 2018.[129] In the past five years infant mortality rates of malaria have dropped. According to a 2013 UNICEF report,[130] 26% of women in Senegal have undergone female genital mutilation.

In March 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic began in Senegal, which led to the imposition of a curfew in the country.[131]

In July 2021, Senegal experienced a significant increase in cases of coronavirus disease.[132]

In June 2021, Senegal's Agency for Universal Health launched sunucmu.com (SunuCMU), a website that the agency hopes will streamline health care in the country. The website is a part of the Minister of State Mohammad Abdallah Dionne's plan for digitalization. He aims to make Senegal's health care system effective and sustainable. Using SunuCMU, Senegal hopes to achieve 75 percent coverage within two years of the launch.[133]

Education

[edit]
Main article: Education in Senegal
Students in Senegal

Articles 21 and 22 of the Constitution adopted in January 2001 guarantee access to education for all children.[134] Education is compulsory and free up to the age of 16.[134] The Ministry of Labor has indicated that the public school system is unable to cope with the number of children that must enroll each year.[134] Portuguese is taught at schools at the secondary high school level, given the large Cape Verdean community, and also from Guinea Bissau. There are sizeable Portuguese creole and standard Portuguese speaking communities in Zinguichor and Dakar.

Illiteracy is high, particularly among women.[127] The net primary enrollment rate was 69 percent in 2005. Public expenditure on education was 5.4 percent of the 2002–2005 GDP. Senegal was ranked 92nd in the Global Innovation Index in 2024.[135]

Culture

[edit]

Senegal is well known for the West African tradition of storytelling, which is done by griots, who have kept West African history alive for thousands of years through words and music. The griot profession is passed down generation to generation and requires years of training and apprenticeship in genealogy, history and music. Griots give voice to generations of West African society.[35]

The African Renaissance Monument built in 2010 in Dakar is the tallest statue in Africa. Dakar also hosts a film festival, Recidak.[136]

The Islamic festival of Eid al-Adha, known locally as Tabaski, is popularly celebrated by Senegalese people. Despite being predominantly Muslim, the Christian festival of Christmas is also popularly observed, with Christmas trees and decorations lining up the city of Dakar.[22]

Cuisine

[edit]
Further information: Senegalese cuisine

Because Senegal borders the Atlantic Ocean, fish is very important. Chicken, lamb, peas, eggs, and beef are also used in Senegalese cooking, but not pork, due to the nation's largely Muslim population. Peanuts, the primary crop of Senegal, as well as couscous, white rice, sweet potatoes, lentils, black-eyed peas and various vegetables, are also incorporated into many recipes. Meats and vegetables are typically stewed or marinated in herbs and spices, and then poured over rice or couscous, or eaten with bread.

Popular fresh juices are made from bissap, ginger, buoy (pronounced 'buoy', which is the fruit of the baobab tree, also known as "monkey bread fruit"), mango, or other fruit or wild trees (most famously soursop, which is called corossol in French). Desserts are very rich and sweet, combining native ingredients with the extravagance and style characteristic of the French impact on Senegal's culinary methods. They are often served with fresh fruit and are traditionally followed by coffee or tea.

Music

[edit]
Further information: Music of Senegal
Kora player from Senegal

Senegal is known across Africa for its musical roots, due to the popularity of mbalax, which originated from the Serer percussive tradition especially the Njuup, it has been popularized by Youssou N'Dour, Omar Pene and others. Sabar drumming is especially popular. The sabar is mostly used in special celebrations such as weddings. Another instrument, the tama, is used in more ethnic groups. Other popular international renowned Senegalese musicians are Ismael Lô, Cheikh Lô, Orchestra Baobab, Baaba Maal, Akon (US-born), Thione Seck, Viviane, Fallou Dieng, Titi, Seckou Keita and Pape Diouf.

Cinema

[edit]
Main article: Cinema of Senegal

Media

[edit]
Main article: Media of Senegal

Hospitality

[edit]

Hospitality, in theory, is given such importance in Senegalese culture that it is widely considered to be part of the national identity. The Wolof[137] word for hospitality is "teranga" and it is so identified with the pride of Senegal that the national football team is known as Les Lions de la Téranga.[35][original research?]

Sport

[edit]
Senegalese Wrestling
Painting of footballer El Hadji Diouf in Dakar

Senegalese play many sports. Wrestling and football are the most popular sports in the country. Senegal will host the 2026 Summer Youth Olympics in Dakar, making Senegal the first African country to host an Olympic event.[138][139]

Senegalese wrestling is the country's most popular sport[140] and has become a national obsession.[141] It traditionally serves many young men to escape poverty and it is the only sport recognized as developed independently of Western culture.

Senegalese football fans at the 2018 FIFA World Cup in Russia

Football is a popular sport in Senegal. In 2022 the national team beat Egypt to win the Africa Cup of Nations for the first time, and they were runners-up in 2002 and 2019. They became one of only five African teams to ever reach the quarter-finals of the FIFA World Cup, after Cameroon in 1990 and before Ghana in 2010, defeating holders France in their first game in 2002. Senegal qualified for the 2018 FIFA World Cup in Russia, and for the 2022 FIFA World Cup in Qatar.

Senegal has traditionally been one of Africa's dominant basketball powers. The men's team performed better than that of any other African nation at the 2014 FIBA World Cup, where they reached the playoffs for the first time. The women's team won 19 medals at 20 African Championships, more than twice as many medals as any competitor. When the country hosted the 2019 FIBA Women's AfroBasket, 15,000 fans flocked to the Dakar Arena which is registered as a record attendance for basketball in Africa.[142] Senegal was one of the continent's pioneers in basketball as it established one of Africa's first competitive leagues.[143]

In 2016, the NBA announced the launch of an Elite's Academy in Africa, and more precisely in Senegal.[144]

The country hosted the Paris–Dakar rally from 1979 until 2007. The Dakar Rally was an off-road endurance motorsport race which followed a course from Paris, France, to Dakar, Senegal. The competitors used off-road vehicles to cross the difficult geography. The last race was held in 2007, before the 2008 rally was canceled a day before the event due to security concerns in Mauritania.[145] The Ocean X-Prix of the electric off-road championship Extreme E was also hosted in Senegal.

See also

[edit]

Explanatory notes

[edit]
  1. ^ Article 1 of the 2001 Constitution of Senegal, which states that the national languages are Diola, Malinké, Pular, Sérère, Soninké and Wolof.[3]
  2. ^ Information from the University of Pennsylvania's Center for African Studies estimates that about 90% of the Senegalese population understands or speaks Wolof as a first or second language.[4]
  3. ^ Arabic is taught as a second language for religious reasons within the Senegalese educational system.[5]
  4. ^ With French Sudan, as the Mali Federation.
  5. ^ /ˌsɛnɪˈɡɔːl, -ˈɡɑːl/ ⓘ;[10][11] French: Sénégal; Wolof: Senegaal; Pulaar: 𞤅𞤫𞤲𞤫𞤺𞤢𞥄𞤤𞤭, romanized: Senegaali; Serer: Senegaal; Arabic: السنغال, romanized: al-Sinigāl
  6. ^ French: République du Sénégal; Wolof: Réewum Senegaal; Pulaar : 𞤈𞤫𞤲𞤣𞤢𞥄𞤲𞤣𞤭 𞤅𞤫𞤲𞤫𞤺𞤢𞥄𞤤𞤭 (Renndaandi Senegaali); Arabic: جمهورية السنغال, romanized: Jumhūriyya al-Sinigāl

References

[edit]
  1. ^ "Wolof is reclaiming ground in Senegal as the French language wanes". 17 November 2022.
  2. ^ a b c d e "Senegal". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. 23 August 2022. Archived from the original on 4 February 2021. Retrieved 23 January 2024.
  3. ^ "Senegal's Constitution of 2001 with Amendments through 2016" (PDF). Constitute Project. Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 April 2023. Retrieved 20 March 2023.
  4. ^ "African Studies Center| African Languages at Penn". Center for African Studies at University of Pennsylvania. Archived from the original on 29 January 2023. Retrieved 20 March 2023.
  5. ^ Falola, Toyin (30 November 2017). Africanizing Knowledge: African Studies Across the Disciplines. Routledge. p. 190. ISBN 978-1-351-32438-0.
  6. ^ a b c d e "Senegal". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. 2009. Archived from the original on 4 February 2021. Retrieved 12 October 2015.
  7. ^ a b c d "World Economic Outlook Database, October 2023 Edition. (Senegal)". International Monetary Fund. 10 October 2023. Retrieved 15 October 2023.
  8. ^ "Gini Index". World Bank. Archived from the original on 25 December 2018. Retrieved 2 March 2011.
  9. ^ "Human Development Report 2023/2024" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 13 March 2024. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 March 2024. Retrieved 13 March 2024.
  10. ^ "Definition of Senegal". The Free Dictionary. Archived from the original on 23 May 2020. Retrieved 6 November 2013.
  11. ^ "Define Senegal". Dictionary.com. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 6 November 2013.
  12. ^ "Which Countries Border The Gambia?". WorldAtlas. 28 August 2018. Archived from the original on 25 September 2023. Retrieved 19 September 2023.
  13. ^ "Why is The Gambia Surrounded by Senegal?". Trazee Travel. 6 July 2020. Archived from the original on 3 October 2023. Retrieved 19 September 2023.
  14. ^ Janet H. Gritzner, Charles F. Gritzner – 2009, Senegal – Page 8
  15. ^ culturetrip (31 May 2018). "The Real Story Behind Senegal's Name". Culture Trip. Archived from the original on 6 December 2022. Retrieved 19 September 2023.
  16. ^ "World Population Prospects 2022". United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. Retrieved 17 July 2022.
  17. ^ "World Population Prospects 2022: Demographic indicators by region, subregion and country, annually for 1950-2100" (XSLX) ("Total Population, as of 1 July (thousands)"). United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. Retrieved 17 July 2022.
  18. ^ "Overview". World Bank. Archived from the original on 30 November 2022. Retrieved 30 November 2022.
  19. ^ V-Dem Institute (2023). "The V-Dem Dataset". Archived from the original on 8 December 2022. Retrieved 14 October 2023.
  20. ^ Jacques Leclerc (4 October 2010). "Sénégal". Trésor de la langue française au Québec. Archived from the original on 29 February 2012. Retrieved 17 March 2012.
  21. ^ Pariona, Amber (27 September 2017). "What Languages Are Spoken in Senegal?". WorldAtlas. Archived from the original on 4 October 2022. Retrieved 4 October 2022.
  22. ^ a b Hammerschlag, Annika (24 December 2019). "Senegal, a Muslim Country that Can't Get Enough Christmas". VOA. Archived from the original on 30 November 2022. Retrieved 30 November 2022.
  23. ^ Systematic Country Diagnostic of Senegal. World Bank. 4 October 2018. doi:10.1596/30852. hdl:10986/30852. S2CID 240089232.
  24. ^ "Why Senegal, a small country, is good at providing international organisations with leaders". D+C. 21 November 2014. Archived from the original on 30 November 2022. Retrieved 30 November 2022.
  25. ^ Guivaudon, Guillaume (13 December 2021). "The best destinations for family holidays". Little Guest. Archived from the original on 30 November 2022. Retrieved 30 November 2022.
  26. ^ Holloway, Beetle (31 May 2018). "The Real Story Behind Senegal's Name". Culture Trip. Archived from the original on 6 December 2022. Retrieved 31 December 2018.
  27. ^ Holloway, Beetle (31 May 2018). "The Real Story Behind Senegal's Name". Culture Trip. Archived from the original on 6 December 2022. Retrieved 19 July 2022.
  28. ^ Klein, Martin A., Islam and Imperialism in Senegal: Sine-Saloum, 1847–1914, p. 7, Edinburgh University Press (1968) ISBN 0-8047-0621-2
  29. ^ Gravrand, Henry, La civilisation Sereer, Pangool, p. 13. Dakar, Nouvelles Editions Africaines (1990), ISBN 2-7236-1055-1
  30. ^ "Slavery", Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History Archived 6 October 2014 at the Wayback Machine
  31. ^ a b Charles, Eunice A. Precolonial Senegal: the Jolof Kingdom, 1800–1890. African Studies Center, Boston University, 1977. p. 3
  32. ^ Ham, Anthony. West Africa. Lonely Planet. 2009. p. 670. ISBN 1-74104-821-4
  33. ^ Research in African literatures, Volume 37. University of Texas at Austin, p. 8. African and Afro-American Studies and Research Center, University of Texas (at Austin) (2006)
  34. ^ Diop, Cheikh Anta & Modum, Egbuna P. Towards the African renaissance: essays in African culture & development, 1946–1960, p. 28. Karnak House (1996). ISBN 0-907015-85-9
  35. ^ a b c Eric S. Ross, Culture and Customs of Senegal, Greenwood Press, Westport, CT, 2008 ISBN 0-313-34036-6
  36. ^ "Goree and the Atlantic Slave Trade". h-net.org. Archived from the original on 23 February 2017. Retrieved 23 February 2017.
  37. ^ Les Guides Bleus: Afrique de l'Ouest (1958 ed.), p. 123.
  38. ^ Bruce Vandervort (25 October 2004). "Senegal in 1848". ohio.edu. Archived from the original on 27 March 2021. Retrieved 27 March 2021.
  39. ^ Klein, Martin A. Islam and Imperialism in Senegal: Sine-Saloum, 1847–1914, Edinburgh University Press (1968). p. X ISBN 0-8047-0621-2
  40. ^ Journal of the African Society (Volume 11 ed.). Africa: MacMillan. 1912. p. 476.
  41. ^ 1851–1865 (PDF). University of Wisconsin-Madison Libraries. p. 167. Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 October 2015. Retrieved 12 November 2018.
  42. ^ Diouf, Niokhobaye, "Chronique du royaume du Sine", Suivie de notes sur les traditions orales et les sources écrites concernant le royaume du Sine par Charles Becker et Victor Martin. (1972). Bulletin de l'Ifan, Tome 34, Série B, n° 4, (1972), p 725 (p 16)
  43. ^ Diouf, Cheikh, "Fiscalité et Domination Coloniale: l'exemple du Sine: 1859-1940", Université Cheikh Anta Diop de Dakar (2005)
  44. ^ Klein, Martin A., "Islam and Imperialism in Senegal, Sine-Saloum, 1847-1914." Edinburgh University Press, pp 55-59, ISBN 0-85224-029-5
  45. ^ Le Quotidien (Senegal), "La communauté sérère face à la Commission nationale chargée de la rédaction de l’histoire du Sénégal." (18 September 2019), by Mahawa Sémou Diouf
  46. ^ Smith, Colin (2010). England's Last War Against France: Fighting Vichy 1940-1942. London: Phoenix.
  47. ^ "Senegal". The New York Times. 15 July 2004. Archived from the original on 27 March 2021. Retrieved 27 March 2021.
  48. ^ A Critical bibliography of French literature: in three parts. The Twentieth. Edited by David Clark Cabeen, Richard A. Brooks, Douglas W. Alden
  49. ^ Gordon, Jane (15 April 2008). A Companion to African-American Studies. John Wiley & Sons. p. 463. ISBN 978-1-4051-5466-6.
  50. ^ "Uppsala Conflict Data Program: Senegal: Casamance, In-depth Developments since 2005" Archived 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine, Conflict Encyclopedia
  51. ^ "Senegal proud of peaceful election after Macky Sall win". BBC News. 26 March 2012. Archived from the original on 30 July 2021. Retrieved 27 June 2021.
  52. ^ "Senegal election: President Macky Sall wins second term". BBC News. 28 February 2019. Archived from the original on 27 July 2021. Retrieved 27 June 2021.
  53. ^ Peltier, Elian (12 June 2023). "'The State Killed My Brother': Senegal in Uproar After Deadly Protests". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 12 June 2023. Retrieved 12 June 2023.
  54. ^ "Senegal opposition candidate Faye won 54 percent in presidential vote". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 3 April 2024. Retrieved 3 April 2024.
  55. ^ "Senegal election: President Macky Sall wins second term", BBC News, 28 February 2019, archived from the original on 13 May 2019, retrieved 10 August 2019
  56. ^ "Senegal's top court confirms Bassirou Diomaye Faye's election victory". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 27 April 2024. Retrieved 29 April 2024.
  57. ^ "Senegal – Country report – Freedom in the World – 2014". Freedomhouse.org. Archived from the original on 10 October 2014. Retrieved 23 August 2017.
  58. ^ "The Ibrahim Index » Mo Ibrahim Foundation". Moibrahimfoundation.org. Archived from the original on 29 December 2011. Retrieved 3 January 2012.
  59. ^ "Senegal severs ties with Iran: Senegal's foreign ministry accuses Tehran of supplying weapons to separatist rebels in its southern Casamance region". Al Jazeera. 23 February 2011. Archived from the original on 30 November 2016. Retrieved 30 November 2016.
  60. ^ "Macky Sall Senegal election win 'example for Africa' | Africa". World.myjoyonline.com. 26 August 2012. Archived from the original on 9 May 2013. Retrieved 25 November 2012.
  61. ^ "Senegal Votes to do Away With Senate to Save Money". Associated Press. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 20 September 2012.
  62. ^ "Senegal ruling party wins large parliamentary majority". Reuters. 5 August 2017. Retrieved 27 June 2021.
  63. ^ "Senegal's President Macky Sall easily wins re-election, opposition will not contest vote". France24. 28 February 2019. Archived from the original on 7 July 2021. Retrieved 27 June 2021.
  64. ^ France-Presse, Agence (2 April 2024). "Bassirou Diomaye Faye sworn in as Senegal's youngest president". The Guardian.
  65. ^ "Letters from Thane Read asking Helen Keller to sign the World Constitution for world peace. 1961". Helen Keller Archive. American Foundation for the Blind. Archived from the original on 3 July 2023. Retrieved 1 July 2023.
  66. ^ "Letter from World Constitution Coordinating Committee to Helen, enclosing current materials". Helen Keller Archive. American Foundation for the Blind. Archived from the original on 19 July 2023. Retrieved 3 July 2023.
  67. ^ "Preparing earth constitution | Global Strategies & Solutions | The Encyclopedia of World Problems". The Encyclopedia of World Problems | Union of International Associations (UIA). Archived from the original on 19 July 2023. Retrieved 15 July 2023.
  68. ^ Amerasinghe, Terence P. (2009). Emerging World Law, Volume 1. Institute for Economic Democracy. p. 50. ISBN 978-1-933567-16-7.
  69. ^ Statoids page on Senegal Archived 28 September 2023 at the Wayback Machine (noting that three new regions were split off on 10 September 2008).
  70. ^ List of current local elected officials Archived 19 August 2007 at the Wayback Machine from Union des Associations d' Elus Locaux (UAEL) du Sénégal. See also the law creating current local government structures: (in French) Code des collectivités locales Archived 11 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine, Loi n° 96-06 du 22 mars 1996.
  71. ^ [1] Archived January 25, 2024, at the Wayback Machine
  72. ^ "Mauritanian refugees refuse to leave Senegal". Al Jazeera. 8 May 2014. Archived from the original on 20 October 2018. Retrieved 20 October 2018.
  73. ^ "2024 Global Peace Index" (PDF).
  74. ^ "Senegal to send 2,100 troops to join Saudi-led alliance". Reuters. 4 May 2015. Archived from the original on 5 May 2015. Retrieved 5 July 2021.
  75. ^ a b "Constitution of Senegal (Article 1)" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 30 September 2015. Retrieved 4 August 2015.
  76. ^ "Public Anti-Corruption Initiatives". Business Anti-Corruption Portal. Archived from the original on 22 May 2014. Retrieved 27 March 2014.
  77. ^ "In Senegal many gay people live in fear, forced to leave home". France 24. 25 June 2021. Archived from the original on 10 October 2021. Retrieved 10 October 2021.
  78. ^ "The Global Divide on Homosexuality." Archived 3 November 2013 at the Wayback Machine pewglobal. 4 June 2013. 4 June 2013.
  79. ^ "'Fighting for survival', Senegal's gay community is on its own". news.trust.org. Archived from the original on 2 May 2019. Retrieved 2 May 2019.
  80. ^ "Senegal High Point". SRTM. Archived from the original on 2 February 2017. Retrieved 22 January 2017.
  81. ^ Dinerstein, Eric; et al. (2017). "An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm". BioScience. 67 (6): 534–545. doi:10.1093/biosci/bix014. ISSN 0006-3568. PMC 5451287. PMID 28608869.
  82. ^ Grantham, H. S.; et al. (2020). "Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity – Supplementary Material". Nature Communications. 11 (1): 5978. Bibcode:2020NatCo..11.5978G. doi:10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 7723057. PMID 33293507.
  83. ^ "Dakar, Senegal Climate Information – ClimateTemp.info, Making Sense of Average Monthly Weather & Temperature Data with Detailed Climate Graphs That Portray Average Rainfall & Sunshine Hours". ClimaTemps.com. 22 July 2011. Archived from the original on 12 July 2012. Retrieved 29 March 2012.
  84. ^ "Weather rainfall and temperature data". World Climate. Archived from the original on 8 February 2011. Retrieved 5 August 2010.
  85. ^ Niang, I; Ruppel, O.C; Abdrabo, M.A; Essel, A; Lennard, C; Padgham, J; Urquhart, P (2014). Africa. Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1199–1265.
  86. ^ Berthou, S.; Kendon, E. J.; Rowell, D. P.; Roberts, M. J.; Tucker, S.; Stratton, R. A. (2019). "Larger Future Intensification of Rainfall in the West African Sahel in a Convection-Permitting Model". Geophysical Research Letters. 46 (22): 13299–13307. Bibcode:2019GeoRL..4613299B. doi:10.1029/2019GL083544. ISSN 1944-8007.
  87. ^ Klein, Cornelia; Taylor, Christopher M. (1 September 2020). "Dry soils can intensify mesoscale convective systems". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 117 (35): 21132–21137. doi:10.1073/pnas.2007998117. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 7474668. PMID 32817526.
  88. ^ "Sea-Level Rise: West Africa Is Sinking". Earth.Org - Past | Present | Future. 24 September 2019. Retrieved 26 November 2020.
  89. ^ Croitoru, Lelia; Miranda, Juan José; Sarraf, Maria (13 March 2019). The Cost of Coastal Zone Degradation in West Africa. World Bank, Washington, DC. doi:10.1596/31428. hdl:10986/31428.
  90. ^ Judt, Daniel (24 September 2019). "In Senegal, Climate Change Is Robbing Thousands of Their Homes". The Nation. ISSN 0027-8378. Retrieved 22 April 2020.
  91. ^ team, FPFIS (22 November 2018). "Fossil CO
    2     emissions of all world countries - 2018 Report"    . EU Science Hub - European Commission. Retrieved 26 November 2020.
  92. ^ "Senegal | UNDP Climate Change Adaptation". www.adaptation-undp.org. Retrieved 22 April 2020.
  93. ^ The Economist, The African Century, March 28th 2020.
  94. ^ "CEPII – Baci". cepii.fr. HS92. Centre d'Etudes Prospectives et d'Informations Internationales. Archived from the original on 31 August 2022. Retrieved 31 August 2022.
  95. ^ "OHADA.com: The business law portal in Africa". Archived from the original on 26 March 2009. Retrieved 22 March 2009.
  96. ^ "Economy of Senegal". China Daily. Archived from the original on 14 September 2017. Retrieved 23 August 2017.
  97. ^ "Peace Corps Senegal". peacecorps.gov. Archived from the original on 8 July 2016. Retrieved 2 February 2023.
  98. ^ a b c Ndiaye, Mbalo. (17 January 2007). "Senegal agricultural situation country report" (PDF). U.S. Foreign Agricultural Service. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 March 2012. Public Domain This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
  99. ^ "Senegal factsheet: Climate information and agricultural planning". 2016report.futureclimateafrica.org. Archived from the original on 7 August 2020. Retrieved 22 April 2020.
  100. ^ 'Russia says factory ship was seized on Greenpeace's orders; Trawler held by Senegal over alleged illegal fishing' by John Vidal The Guardian (UK newspaper) 10 January 2014 page 23
  101. ^ a b c "Power Africa in Senegal | Power Africa | U.S. Agency for International Development". usaid.gov. 16 April 2020. Retrieved 28 April 2020.
  102. ^ a b "Senegal Energy Outlook – Analysis". IEA. 22 January 2020. Retrieved 28 April 2020.
  103. ^ CIA World Factbook: Senegal. [2] Archived 30 September 2023 at the Wayback Machine (retrieved 15 April 2024):
    • "Wolof 39.7%, Pulaar 27.5%, Sereer 16%, Mandinka 4.9%, Jola 4.2%, Soninke 2.4%, other 5.4% (includes Europeans and persons of Lebanese descent) (2019 est.)."
  104. ^ "Boost for the reintegration of Mauritanian returnees". UNHCR News. 26 November 2008. Archived from the original on 30 June 2017. Retrieved 12 January 2010.
  105. ^ "World Refugee Survey 2008". U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants. 19 June 2008. Archived from the original on 28 May 2010.
  106. ^ "Portail de l'Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie (OIF)". Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie. Archived from the original on 1 June 2013. Retrieved 18 February 2023.
  107. ^ National African Language Research Center, Wolof, Madison: University of Wisconsin
  108. ^ a b c Oumar Moussa Djigo (31 December 2016), "The Status of English and Other Languages in Senegal", The Warwick ELT, archived from the original on 10 August 2019, retrieved 10 August 2019
  109. ^ José Horta (12–25 April 2006). "A Língua Portuguesa no Senegal". Instituto Camões. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 10 December 2014.
  110. ^ Pierre Cherruau (19 August 2012). "Le Sénégal est-il encore un pays francophone?". Archived from the original on 14 November 2019. Retrieved 19 August 2012.
  111. ^ a b Agence Nationale de la Statistique et de la Démographie (2005). "Situation économique et sociale du Sénégal" (PDF) (in French). Government of Senegal. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 June 2008. Retrieved 18 November 2008.
  112. ^ "Senegal". City Population. Archived from the original on 26 April 2022. Retrieved 9 December 2021.
  113. ^ "Senegal". Archived from the original on 29 January 2024. Retrieved 29 January 2024.
  114. ^ Conklin, Alice L. A Mission to Civilize: The Republican Idea of Empire in France and West Africa, 1895–1930. Stanford University Press, 1997. ISBN 0-8047-2999-9. p. 27.
  115. ^ Lewis, M. Paul (ed.), 2009. Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Sixteenth edition. Dallas, Tex.: SIL International
  116. ^ Berkley Center, "Country Mapping: Senegal." [3] Archived 31 December 2023 at the Wayback Machine (retrieved 15 April 2024)
  117. ^ Johnson, Marloes, "Chapter 36: Islam in Sub-Saharan Africa." SOAS, University of London (2017), pp. 15-17 (PDF)
  118. ^ a b "Chapter 1: Religious Affiliation". The World's Muslims: Unity and Diversity. Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. 9 August 2012. Archived from the original on 26 December 2016. Retrieved 4 September 2013.
  119. ^ Hans Bressers; Walter A. Rosenbaum (2003). Achieving Sustainable Development: The Challenge of Governance Across Social Scales. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 151–. ISBN 978-0-275-97802-0.
  120. ^ a b Diouf, Niokhobaye, « Chronique du royaume du Sine, suivie de Notes sur les traditions orales et les sources écrites concernant le royaume du Sine par Charles Becker et Victor Martin (1972)», . (1972). Bulletin de l'IFAN, tome 34, série B, no 4, 1972, pp. 706–7 (pp. 4–5), pp. 713–14 (pp. 9–10)
  121. ^ "In Senegalese bush, Bani Israel tribe claims Jewish heritage". Jewish Telegraphic Agency. 23 May 2013. Archived from the original on 15 July 2019. Retrieved 15 July 2019.
  122. ^ 'Abdu'l-Bahá (1991) [1916–17]. Tablets of the Divine Plan (Paperback ed.). Wilmette, IL: Bahá'í Publishing Trust. pp. 47–59. ISBN 0-87743-233-3. Archived from the original on 11 May 2011. Retrieved 1 August 2009.
  123. ^ Hassall, Graham (c. 2000). "Egypt: Baha'i history". Asia Pacific Bahá'í Studies: Bahá'í Communities by country. Bahá'í Online Library. Archived from the original on 27 December 2011. Retrieved 24 May 2009.
  124. ^ Bahá'í International Community (28 December 2003). "National communities celebrate together". Bahá'í International News Service. Archived from the original on 12 January 2013.
  125. ^ "Most Baha'i Nations (2005)". QuickLists > Compare Nations > Religions >. The Association of Religion Data Archives. 2005. Archived from the original on 14 April 2010. Retrieved 4 July 2009.
  126. ^ "Senegal Statistical Factsheet" (PDF). Factsheet of Health Statistics 2018. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 September 2014.
  127. ^ a b c d "Human Development Report 2009 – Senegal". Hdrstats.undp.org. Archived from the original on 15 July 2010. Retrieved 20 June 2010.
  128. ^ "Enquête Démographique et de Santé Continue (EDS-Continue) 2012–2013" (PDF) (in French). Republic of Senegal. July 2013. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 November 2013. Retrieved 27 January 2014.
  129. ^ "Infant mortality rate in Senegal". UN Inter-agency Group for Child Mortality Estimation. Retrieved 27 June 2021.[permanent dead link]
  130. ^ UNICEF 2013 Archived 5 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine, p. 27.
  131. ^ "Africa: SA in lockdown, curfews in the west as continent braces for Covid-19 wave". Radio France Internationale. 24 March 2020. Archived from the original on 23 November 2021. Retrieved 23 November 2021.
  132. ^ "Senegal seeing significant rise in Delta variant cases". ANADOLU AGENCY. Archived from the original on 23 November 2021. Retrieved 23 November 2021.
  133. ^ "A New Platform to Improve Health Care in Senegal". BORGEN. 28 June 2019. Retrieved 6 July 2021.
  134. ^ a b c "Senegal". 2005 Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor. Bureau of International Labor Affairs, U.S. Department of Labor (2006). This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. Archived 9 January 2014 at the Wayback Machine
  135. ^ World Intellectual Property Organization (2024). "Global Innovation Index 2024. Unlocking the Promise of Social Entrepreneurship" (PDF). www.wipo.int. Geneva. p. 18. doi:10.34667/tind.50062. ISBN 978-92-805-3681-2. Retrieved 1 October 2024.
  136. ^ Baba Diop. "Après dix années d'interruption : Les RECIDAK nouvelles arrivent en 2014" (in French). Africatime. Archived from the original on 30 November 2016. Retrieved 30 November 2016.
  137. ^ The word taranga (hospitality), jom (honour), etc., are all Serer from the Serer language, rooted in Serer values and serer religion, not Wolof. See: (in French) Gravrand, Henry, "L'HERITAGE SPIRITUEL SEREER: VALEUR TRADITIONNELLE D'HIER, D'AUJOURD'HUI ET DE DEMAIN" [in] Ethiopiques, numéro 31, révue socialiste de culture négro-africaine, 3e trimestre 1982 [4] Archived 1 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine
  138. ^ "Senegal to be 1st African Olympic host at 2022 Youth Games". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 10 September 2018. Retrieved 10 September 2018.
  139. ^ "Senegal first African nation to host an Olympic event". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 19 December 2019. Retrieved 10 September 2018.
  140. ^ "Sports in Africa: Communication and Media". Ohio University. Archived from the original on 30 April 2019. Retrieved 3 April 2015.
  141. ^ Skelton, Rose; Werman, Marco (9 June 2011). "Wrestling As a Solution to Poverty in Senegal". PRI. Archived from the original on 30 April 2019. Retrieved 3 April 2015.
  142. ^ "Getting to know Africa's flashy basketball arenas". FIBA. 2 September 2019. Archived from the original on 7 January 2021. Retrieved 10 December 2020.
  143. ^ Nxumalo, Lee (20 December 2020). "Basketball's next frontier is Africa". New Frame. Archived from the original on 16 January 2021. Retrieved 11 January 2021.
  144. ^ "NBA to open academy in Africa in 2017". National Basketball Association. Archived from the original on 9 October 2019. Retrieved 26 December 2016.
  145. ^ Hamilos, Paul (4 January 2008). "Dakar rally cancelled at last minute over terrorist threat". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 24 April 2019. Retrieved 10 February 2018.

Further reading

[edit]
  • Babou, Cheikh Anta, Fighting the Greater Jihad: Amadu Bamba and the Founding of the Muridiyya of Senegal, 1853–1913, (Ohio University Press, 2007)
  • Behrman, Lucy C, Muslim Brotherhood and Politics in Senegal, (iUniverse.com, 1999)
  • Buggenhage, Beth A, Muslim Families in Global Senegal: Money Takes Care of Shame, (Indiana University Press, 2012)
  • Bugul, Ken, The Abandoned Baobab: The Autobiography of a Senegalese Woman, (University of Virginia Press, 2008)
  • Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). "Senegal (colony)" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 24 (11th ed.). pp. 640–644.
  • Foley, Ellen E, Your Pocket is What Cures You: The Politics of Health in Senegal, (Rutgers University Press, 2010)
  • Gellar, Sheldon, Democracy in Senegal: Tocquevillian Analytics in Africa, (Palgrave Macmillan, 2005)
  • Glover, John, Sufism and Jihad in Modern Senegal: The Murid Order, (University of Rochester Press, 2007)
  • Kane, Katharina, Lonely Planet Guide: The Gambia and Senegal, (Lonely Planet Publications, 2009)
  • Kueniza, Michelle, Education and Democracy in Senegal, (Palgrave Macmillan, 2011)
  • Mbacké, Khadim, Sufism and Religious Brotherhoods in Senegal, (Markus Wiener Publishing Inc., 2005)
  • Streissguth, Thomas, Senegal in Pictures, (Twentyfirst Century Books, 2009)
  • Various, Insight Guide: Gambia and Senegal, (APA Publications Pte Ltd., 2009)
  • Various, New Perspectives on Islam in Senegal: Conversion, Migration, Wealth, Power, and Femininity, (Palgrave Macmillan, 2009)
  • Various, Senegal: Essays in Statecraft, (Codesria, 2003)
  • Various, Street Children in Senegal, (GYAN France, 2006)
[edit]
Trade

14°N 14°W / 14°N 14°W / 14; -14

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Senegal&oldid=1254483294"