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George Westinghouse

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George Westinghouse
Westinghouse in 1884
Born(1846-10-06)October 6, 1846
Central Bridge, New York, U.S.
DiedMarch 12, 1914(1914-03-12) (aged 67)
New York City, U.S.
Known forFounder of the original Westinghouse Electric Corporation, and the Westinghouse Air Brake Company and others.
Spouse
Marguerite Erskine Walker
​
​
(m. 1867)​
Children1
Awards
Signature

George Westinghouse Jr. (October 6, 1846 – March 12, 1914) was a prolific American inventor, engineer, and entrepreneurial industrialist based in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania who is best known for his creation of the railway air brake and for being a pioneer in the development and use of alternating current (AC) electrical power distribution. During his career, he received 362 patents for his inventions and established 61 companies, many still in existence today.

His invention of a train braking system based on using compressed air transformed the railroad industry around the world. He founded the Westinghouse Air Brake Company in 1869.[1] He and his engineers also developed track-switching and signaling systems, leading to the founding of the company Union Switch & Signal in 1881.

In the early 1880s, his interest in and inventions for the safe production, transmission, and use of natural gas spurred a whole new energy industry.

During this same period, Westinghouse recognized the potential of using alternating current (AC) for electric power distribution, and in 1886, he founded the Westinghouse Electric Corporation. Westinghouse's electric business was in direct competition with Thomas Edison's, who was promoting direct current (DC) electricity. Westinghouse Electric won the contract to demonstrate its AC system to illuminate the "White City" at the 1893 Columbian Exposition in Chicago. The company went on to install the world's first large-scale, AC power generation plant at Niagara Falls, NY, which opened in August 1895.

Ironically, among many other honors, Westinghouse received the 1911 Edison Medal of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers "for meritorious achievement in connection with the development of the alternating current system".[2]

Early years

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George Westinghouse was born in 1846 in the village of Central Bridge, New York (see George Westinghouse Jr. Birthplace and Boyhood Home), the son of Emeline (Vedder) and George Westinghouse Sr., a farmer and machine shop owner.[3] The Westinghouse ancestors came from Westphalia in Germany, where they first moved to England and then emigrated to the US. The family name had been anglicized from Westinghausen.

George Westinghouse in 1864, at age 17

From his youth, Westinghouse displayed a talent with machinery and business. At the outbreak of the Civil War in 1862, the then 15-year-old enlisted in the New York National Guard and served until his parents implored him to return home. The following year, he persuaded his parents to let him re-enlist, whereupon he joined Company M of the 16th New York cavalry and earned promotion to the rank of corporal. He was honorably discharged in November 1863, but then a month later he joined the Union Navy. He served as Acting Third Assistant Engineer on the gunboat USS Muscoota and then on the ship USS Stars and Stripes through the end of the war.[4] These ships were used to blockade Southern port cities. After his discharge in August 1865, Westinghouse returned to his family and enrolled at Union College in Schenectady, but he quickly lost interest and dropped out during his first term.

Westinghouse was just 19 when he received his first patent, for a rotary steam engine.[5] He also devised the Westinghouse Farm Engine. At age 21, he invented a car replacer, a device used to guide derailed railroad cars back onto the tracks, and a reversible "frog", a rail junction piece used to switch trains between different tracks.[6] In 1868, Westinghouse moved with his wife to Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania to obtain better and less expensive steel for the manufacture of his railroad frogs, and there he began to develop his recently invented railroad air brake concept.

Railroad air brakes and signaling/switching systems

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Main article: Railway air brake § Westinghouse air brake
Westinghouse Steam and Air Brakes (U.S. patent 144,006)

During his travels, Westinghouse had witnessed the aftermath of a collision where engineers on two trains approaching each other on the same track had seen each other but were unable to stop their trains in time, using the existing brake systems.

At that time, brakemen had to run along catwalks on the top of the cars, manually applying the brakes. Coordinating that was tricky and dangerous. It also meant trains could be no longer than ten cars, and thousands of brakemen died or were maimed each year.[7]

In 1869, at age 23, Westinghouse first publicly demonstrated his revolutionary new railroad braking system in Pittsburgh. It stopped trains using a compressed air system. The Westinghouse Air Brake Company was founded that November.

His first braking system used an air compressor in the locomotive, with an air reservoir and a special valve on each car, and a single compressed air pipe running the length of the train with flexible connections between cars. That line both refilled the reservoirs and controlled the brakes, allowing the engineer to apply and release the brakes simultaneously on all cars.

First Westinghouse Air Brake Factory in Pittsburgh

Although the system was successful, as demonstrated when it prevented a serious mishap in front of assembled witnesses,[8] it was hardly fail-safe. Any rupture or disconnection in the air line left the train without brakes.

Over the next two years, Westinghouse and his engineers solved the problem by inverting the process, designing valves so that constant pressure in the lines kept the brakes disengaged. With the improved design, any interruption or break in the line would automatically cause the train to stop.

During the next decade, following up on his earliest inventions, Westinghouse also extended his interest to railway signaling and track-switching systems. Previously, signaling was done with oil lamps and track switching was done manually. Westinghouse's designs changed all that. In 1882, Westinghouse founded the Union Switch and Signal Company to manufacture, market, install, and maintain its innovative control systems, which also were eventually adopted by railroads around the world.[9][10]

Natural gas

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By 1883, Westinghouse became interested in natural gas. Gas had been recently discovered at the Haymaker Well in nearby Murrysville, Pennsylvania, and it attracted a lot of attention, in part because of a spectacular flaming blowout of a well. After visiting the well and recognizing its commercial potential, he undertook drilling for gas on his estate Solitude (today's Westinghouse Park) in Pittsburgh.

The Westinghouse "Old No.1" natural gas derrick, sometime between June 1884 and end of 1889, located at the Solitude estate in present-day Westinghouse Park. The Westinghouse carriage house/laboratory and the mansion are seen on the right.[11]
Sign in Westinghouse Park describing drilling for natural gas in 1884 on the grounds of the "Solitude" estate.

Early in the morning of May 21, 1884, the drilling crew struck a pocket of gas at 1500 feet deep, and the resulting blast of dirt and water blew the top off the derrick. It took Westinghouse a week to find a way to cap the flow of gas. He was encouraged to develop a system to deliver gas to heat and light area homes and businesses.[12] Eventually, several natural gas derricks towered above his estate's Victorian-era gardens.[11] In modern times there is no above-ground trace left of these derricks.

That year, Westinghouse obtained a dormant utility charter for "The Philadelphia Company", and over the next three years, he developed devices and obtained more than 30 patents for this technology. He used the Philadelphia Company to develop gas wells and promote its use both for commercial and residential purposes. By 1886, the Philadelphia Company owned 58 wells and 184 miles of distribution piping in the Pittsburgh area, and by 1887, it served over 12,000 private homes and 582 industrial customers across the state.[13]

In 1889, as his involvement with the generation and distribution of electricity was surging, Westinghouse resigned as president of the Philadelphia Company, but he remained on its board. Growth in the natural gas business slowed in the 1890s hampered by supply problems and ongoing safety concerns about gas distribution in homes and businesses. But the Philadelphia Company continued to grow, and spawning such enterprises as Equitable Gas and Duquesne Light.

Electric power distribution

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Westinghouse Electric Company 1888 catalog advertising their "Alternating System"

In the early 1880s, Westinghouse's interest in railroad switching and natural gas distribution led him to get involved with the then-new field of electrical power distribution. Electric lighting of streets with arc lighting was already a growing business with many companies building systems powered by either locally generated direct current (DC) or alternating current (AC). At the same time, Thomas Edison was launching the first DC electric utility designed to light homes and businesses with his patented incandescent bulb.

In 1884, Westinghouse started developing his own DC domestic lighting system and hired physicist William Stanley to help work on it. In 1885, when reading the British technical journal Engineering.[14] Westinghouse became aware of a new electrical transformer developed by Lucien Gaulard and John Gibbs. They had discovered that AC electricity could be "stepped up" in voltage by a transformer for transmission and then "stepped down" by another transformer for lower voltage consumer use. This made it possible for large, centralized power plants to generate electricity and supply it over long distances to both cities and places with more dispersed populations. This was a huge advantage over the low voltage DC systems being marketed by Edison’s electric utility, which meant generating stations had a limited transmission range of only a mile due to the low voltage and high currents used. Westinghouse recognized AC's potential to achieve greater economies of scale as a way to create a truly competitive electrical system, instead of simply piecing together another, barely competitive DC lighting system just different enough to get around Edison’s patents.[15]

Westinghouse patent for an AC lighting system with battery backup from 1887 (U.S. patent 373,035)

In 1885 Westinghouse imported several Gaulard–Gibbs transformers and a Siemens AC generator, to begin experimenting with AC networks in Pittsburgh. Stanley, assisted by engineers Albert Schmid and Oliver B. Shallenberger, dramatically improved the Gaulard–Gibbs transformer design into the first practical and manufacturable transformer.[16] In 1886, with Westinghouse's backing, Stanley installed the first multiple-voltage AC power system in Great Barrington, Massachusetts. The demonstration lighting system was driven by a hydroelectric generator that produced 500 volts AC stepped down to 100 volts to light incandescent bulbs in homes and businesses. That same year, Westinghouse formed the "Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Company";[17] in 1889 he renamed it "Westinghouse Electric Corporation".

War of the currents

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Main article: War of the currents

The Westinghouse company installed thirty more AC-lighting systems within a year, and by the end of 1887 it had 68 alternating current power stations compared to 121 DC-based stations Edison had installed over seven years.[18] This competition with Edison led in the late 1880s to what has been called the "war of currents". Thomas Edison and his company joined in with a spreading public perception that the high voltages used in AC distribution were unsafe and deadly. Edison even suggested a Westinghouse AC generator be used in the State of New York's new electric chair.

Westinghouse also had to deal with another AC rival, the Thomson-Houston Electric Company, which had constructed 22 power stations by the end of 1887[18] and by 1889 had bought out another competitor, the Brush Electric Company. Thomson-Houston was expanding its business while trying to avoid patent conflicts with Westinghouse, arranging deals such as coming to agreements over lighting company territory, paying royalties to use the Stanley transformer patent, and allowing Westinghouse to use its Sawyer–Man incandescent bulb patent.

In 1890, the Edison company, in collusion with Thomson-Houston, managed to arrange in 1890 that the first electric chair was powered with a Westinghouse AC generator. Westinghouse tried to block this move by hiring the best lawyer of the day to (unsuccessfully) defend William Kemmler, the first man scheduled to die in the chair.

The War of Currents ended in 1892 when financier J. P. Morgan forced Edison General Electric to switch to AC power and then pushed Edison out of the company he had founded.[19]

Edison General Electric company was merged with the Thomson-Houston Electric Company to form General Electric, a conglomerate with the board of Thomson-Houston in control.[20]

Development and competition

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During this period, Westinghouse continued to pour money and engineering resources into the goal of building a completely integrated AC system — obtaining the Sawyer–Man lamp by buying Consolidated Electric Light, and then developing components such as an induction meter,[21] and obtaining the rights to inventor Nikola Tesla's brushless AC induction motor along with patents for a new type of electric power distribution, polyphase alternating current.[22][23] The acquisition of a feasible AC motor gave Westinghouse a key patented element for his system, but the financial strain of buying up patents and hiring the engineers needed to build it meant development of Tesla's motor had to be put on hold for a while.[24]

Workmen with one of the two Westinghouse alternators used in the Ames Hydroelectric AC power installation

In 1891, Westinghouse's company was in trouble. The near collapse of Barings Bank in London triggered the financial panic of 1890, causing investors to call in their loans.[25] The sudden cash shortage forced the company to refinance its debts. The new lead lenders demanded that Westinghouse cut back on what looked to them like excessive spending on acquisition of other companies, research, and patents.[25][26]

In 1891, Westinghouse built a hydroelectric AC power plant, the Ames Hydroelectric Generating Plant near Ophir, Colorado which supplied AC power to the Gold King Mine 3.5 miles away. This was the first successful demonstration of long-distance transmission of industrial-grade alternating current power and used two 100 hp Westinghouse alternators, one working as a generator producing 3000-volt, 133-Hertz, single-phase AC, and the other used as an AC motor.[27]

In May 1892, Westinghouse Electric won the bid to power and illuminate the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago with alternating current, substantially underbidding General Electric to get the contract.[28][29][30] He then also had to quickly develop a new type of incandescent lightbulb based on the Sawyer–Man patent he had obtained, one that did not infringe on the Edison patent design.

By the beginning of 1893 Westinghouse engineer Benjamin Lamme had made great progress in developing an efficient version of Tesla's induction motor. Westinghouse Electric started branding their complete polyphase AC system as the "Tesla Polyphase System", announcing Tesla's patents gave them patent priority over other AC systems and their intentions to sue patent any infringers.[31]

Westinghouse Generators at Niagara Falls

This World's Fair devoted a building to electrical exhibits. It was a key event in the history of AC power, as Westinghouse demonstrated the safety, reliability, and efficiency of a fully integrated alternating current system to the American public.[32]

Westinghouse's demonstration that they could build a complete AC system at the Columbian Exposition was instrumental in the company getting the contract for building a two-phase AC generating system, the Adams Power Plant, at Niagara Falls in 1895. The company was subcontracted to build ten 5,000 horsepower (3,700 kW) 25 Hz[33] AC generators at this plant.

At the same time, a contract to build the three-phase AC distribution system the project needed was awarded to General Electric.[34] The early to mid-1890s saw General Electric, backed by financier J. P. Morgan, involved in costly takeover attempts and patent battles with Westinghouse Electric. The competition was so costly that in 1896 a patent-sharing agreement was signed between the two companies. The agreement stayed in effect until 1911.[35]

Westinghouse's Niagara Power Station No. 1, as it was then called, remained in operation in the Niagara transformer house until the plant closed in 1961.[36]

Other Westinghouse projects: steam engines, maritime propulsion, and shock absorbers

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Despite continuing success in his other businesses, Westinghouse's main interest became electric power. At the outset, the available generating sources were hydro turbines where falling water was available, and reciprocating steam engines where it was not. Westinghouse felt that existing reciprocating steam engines were clumsy and inefficient, and he wanted to develop rotating engines that would be more elegant. His first patent had been a rotary steam engine, but it had proven impractical at the time.

In 1884, the British engineer Charles Algernon Parsons began experimenting with steam turbines, starting with a 10-horsepower (7.5 kW) turbine. In 1895, Westinghouse bought rights to the Parsons turbine, and his engineers improved its technology and increased its scale. In 1898, Westinghouse demonstrated a 300-kilowatt generating unit, replacing reciprocating engines in his air-brake factory. The next year, he installed a 1.5-MW 1200 rpm unit for the Hartford Electric Light Company.

George Westinghouse at Work

Westinghouse also developed steam turbines for maritime propulsion. The basic problem was that large turbines ran most efficiently at around 3000 rpm, while an efficient propeller operated only at about 100 rpm. That required reduction gearing, but designing reduction gearing that could operate at both high rpm and at high power was difficult since any slight misalignment would shake the powertrain to pieces. Westinghouse and his engineers invented an automatic self-alignment system that finally made turbine power practical for large vessels.[37]

In 1889, Westinghouse purchased several mining claims in the Patagonia Mountains of southeastern Arizona and formed the Duquesne Mining & Reduction Company. He hoped to invent a better way to mine and extract copper from "lean" ores that were not particularly rich in the metal. This would have helped him compete in the electrical businesses that used much copper.[38] He was unsuccessful in this project: no new copper reduction process was found and the mine was not profitable. He founded Duquesne to use as his company headquarters; it is now a ghost town. Duquesne grew to over 1,000 residents and the mine reached its peak production in the mid-1910s.[39][40]

Westinghouse also began to work on heat pumps that could provide heating and cooling. When Westinghouse claimed he was after a perpetual motion machine, the British physicist William Thomson (Lord Kelvin), one of his many correspondents, told him that would be violating the laws of thermodynamics. Westinghouse replied that might be the case, but it made no difference. If he couldn't build a perpetual motion machine, he would still have a heat pump system that he could patent and sell.

After the broader introduction of the automobile, Westinghouse invented a compressed air shock absorber for their suspension systems.[41] The shock absorber was the last of the 362 patents he received, and it was awarded four years after his death.

Labor relations

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Westinghouse was the first industrial employer in the United States to give workers a five-and-a half day work week, starting in June 1881. Saturdays were made half holidays to promote community involvement and personal development.[42][43] Westinghouse had observed the practice on visits to England.

The planned community of Wilmerding, PA was home to many Westinghouse employees, and it was also the headquarters of several companies, particularly Westinghouse Air Brake. Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing was located a mile further down the Turtle Creek valley east of Pittsburgh. The worker houses were outfitted with running water, electricity, gas, and often space for small gardens. Homeownership was possible through periodic deductions from worker salaries. There was a pension and an insurance system. Factories were well-lit, ventilated, and were outfitted with medical facilities and personnel for treating injuries. All these accommodations, at Westinghouse's expense, were considered highly innovative at the time, especially in contrast to the conditions endured by workers in the nearby steel mills.[42][44]

Westinghouse was broadly admired by his workers. Privately, they referred to him as "The Old Man".[45][46] An indication of his progressive attitude was that when Westinghouse engineers invented things, they were allowed to keep their names on the patents, though assigning rights to use them to the company. Westinghouse viewed this as part of the dignity of man to his intellectual property.[47] Westinghouse, unlike Edison, did not put his name the each company patent as co-inventor.[48]

Westinghouse was not in favor of labor unionization. He did not reject workers who belonged to a union,[43] but he did not like collective bargaining arrangements where his workers might strike for issues not related to conditions at his own factories.[49] There was only one strike at any Westinghouse company while he was in charge. It was a 1903 action at Westinghouse Machine Company, which was rushing to illuminate the 1904 St. Louis Worlds Fair.[50] [51] Westinghouse responded by immediately hiring replacements for those employees who walked out. [52] Despite that action, American labor and union organizer Samuel Gompers is reputed to have said "if all business leaders and moguls treated their employees as well as George Westinghouse, there’d be no need for any labor unions".[53] [54]

Personal life, later life, and death

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George Westinghouse, c. 1906
Marguerite Erskine Westinghouse
George & Marguerite Westinghouse as a young married couple
"Solitude", home of George Westinghouse and family in Pittsburgh, PA, in the 1880s and 1890s, seen from the east. From Ref.[55]
Erskine Manor, Lenox, MA, from 1893, summer home of George and Marguerite Westinghouse
The residence of George & Marguerite Westinghouse in Washington, D.C., from 1901 to 1914

In 1867, Westinghouse met Marguerite Erskine Walker on a train, and they married in August of that year. They were married for 47 years,[56] and had one son, George Westinghouse III, who in turn had six children.[57]

From 1871, George and Marguerite Westinghouse maintained a large home in Pittsburgh called Solitude, building up from an existing house and land purchased by George in 1871. They were part of a social class of very rich local industrialists and money managers including neighbors and associates Henry Clay Frick, Henry J. Heinz, William Thaw, Andrew Mellon, and Richard Beatty Mellon, and the brothers Andrew Carnegie and Thomas Carnegie.[58] Their guests included Nicola Tesla, Lord Kelvin, and congressman (and future president) William McKinley. By 1893, they had constructed Erskine Park in Lenox, Massachusetts, which they used as a summer home, in part as a respite from the gritty industrial environment of Pittsburgh. It was named for the family of Marguerite's grandparents.[59] In 1898 they leased and then in 1901 purchased the Blaine House mansion in Washington D.C. Marguerite Westinghouse was reputed to host frequent and lavish entertainments there.[60] In 1918 his former Pittsburgh home, Solitude, was razed and the land given to the City of Pittsburgh to establish Westinghouse Park. The house in Erskine Park was sold by the family in 1917 and subsequently demolished.

In 1894, the Grand Army of the Republic, a fraternal organization of Union Civil War veterans, held a week-long convention in Pittsburgh. George Westinghouse, being a veteran himself, hosted an evening of dinner and entertainment for over 5000 attendees at the newly constructed, but not yet active main buildings of the Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Company in East Pittsburgh. He took on the expenses of the necessary building preparations and all the expenses of transporting people to and from the site by rail. [61]

Westinghouse remained a captain of American industry until 1907 when the financial panic of 1907 led to his resignation from control of the Westinghouse Electric company. By 1911, he was no longer active in business, and his health was in decline. [62]

George Westinghouse died on March 12, 1914, in New York City at age 67. He was initially interred in Woodlawn Cemetery, Bronx, NY then removed on December 14, 1915. As a Civil War veteran, he was buried in Arlington National Cemetery, along with his wife Marguerite, who survived him by three months. She had also been initially interred in Woodlawn and removed and reinterred at the same time as George.[63]

Honors and awards

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George Westinghouse was deeply appreciated by his colleagues and employees. For example, Nicola Tesla, with whom he developed the AC polyphase system of electric power distribution spoke of him in 1938 as follows: "George Westinghouse was, in my opinion, the only man on this globe who could take my alternating-current system under the circumstances then existing and win the battle against prejudice and money power. He was a pioneer of imposing stature, one of the world's true noblemen, of whom America may well be proud and to whom humanity owes an immense debt of gratitude."[64]

The George Westinghouse Memorial in Schenley Park in Pittsburgh, PA.

List of Honors and Awards adapted from Ref.[65]

  • In 1874, he was awarded the Scott Legacy Medal by the Franklin Institute.
  • In 1884, he was awarded the Order of Leopold by Leopold II, King of the Belgians.
  • In 1884 and 1889, he received the Order of the Royal Crown of Italy from Umberto I.
  • In 1895, he was made a member of France's Legion of Honor.
  • In 1905, the American Engineering Societies honored him with the John Fritz Medal.
  • In 1906, the Berlin Royal Technical University awards him an honorary doctorate of engineering.
  • In 1910 he was elected president of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
  • In 1911, as previously mentioned, he was awarded the AIEE Edison Medal.
  • In 1913, he became the first American to receive the Grashoff Medal from Germany.
  • In 1915, Westinghouse High School, located in Pittsburgh, a mile from his former mansion, was named in his honor.
  • In 1918, Solitude, his Pittsburgh home, was purchased by the Engineers Society of Western Pennsylvania and given to the city of Pittsburgh to establish Westinghouse Park. (The mansion was razed the following summer.)
  • In 1930, the George Westinghouse Memorial, funded by 50,000 of his employees, was placed in Schenley Park in Pittsburgh.
  • In 1932, the George Westinghouse Memorial Bridge was opened in 1932 to carry US Route 30 over the Turtle Creek Valley where his many companies had flourished. Its plaque reads:
IN BOLDNESS OF CONCEPTION, IN GREATNESS
AND IN USEFULNESS TO MANKIND THIS BRIDGE
TYPIFIES THE CHARACTER AND CAREER OF
GEORGE WESTINGHOUSE 1846–1914
IN WHOSE HONOR IT WAS DEDICATED ON
SEPTEMBER 10, 1932
Westinghouse's grave in Arlington National Cemetery

Timeline

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(Adapted from Library of Congress)[68]

  • 1846: George Westinghouse born.
  • 1865: George Westinghouse obtains first patent for rotary steam engine.
  • 1867: Marries Marguerite Erskine Walker.
  • 1869: George Westinghouse receives patent for the air brake. Westinghouse Air Brake Company organized with George Westinghouse as president.
  • 1872: Automatic air brake invented.
  • 1878: First foreign air brake company started at Sevran, France.
  • 1881: Westinghouse Machine Company formed. The Westinghouse Brake Company, Ltd., in London, England, founded.
  • 1881: The air brake company institutes Saturday half-holiday.
  • 1882: Union Switch and Signal Company organized.
  • 1884: The Westinghouse Brake Company, Ltd., in Hanover, Germany, founded.
  • 1886: Westinghouse Electric Company, later known as the Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Company, formed.
  • 1889: Ground broken for air brake factory at Wilmerding, PA.
  • 1890: Westinghouse began manufacture of electric railway motors.
  • 1893: Westinghouse Electric company lights Columbian Exposition in Chicago.
  • 1895: Main works for Electric and Manufacturing Company built in East Pittsburgh.
  • 1896: Generators built by Westinghouse turn the waters of Niagara Falls into electric power.
  • 1898: Westinghouse Company, Ltd., in St Petersburg, Russia organized.
  • 1899: The British Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Company, Ltd., formed in London, England, with another plant in Manchester.
  • 1901: Societe Anonyme Westinghouse organized with offices in Paris, and works in Le Havre and Freinville. The Westinghouse Electricitats-Actiengesellschaft organized in Berlin.
  • 1903: Canadian Westinghouse Company, Ltd., founded. Relief Department (disability benefits, medical and surgical services) founded.
  • 1904: The American Mutoscope & Biograph Co. films motion pictures of the Westinghouse Works. [69] Louisiana Purchase Exposition held in St. Louis—Westinghouse Co. displays several large exhibits, holds screenings of the AM&B films, and supplies power generators and equipment for the exposition's service plant.
  • 1905: Electrification of the Manhattan Elevated Railways and the New York subway system.
  • 1907: George Westinghouse loses control of his companies.
  • 1911: George Westinghouse severs all ties with his companies.
  • 1914: George Westinghouse dies.
  • 1918: George Westinghouse receives his final patent, 4 years after his death.

References

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Patents

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Notes

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  1. ^ Becerra-Fernandez, Irma; Rajiv Sabherwal (2014). Knowledge Management: Systems and Processes. Taylor & Francis. p. 241. ISBN 9781317503026 – via Google Books.
  2. ^ "George Westinghouse". IEEE Global History Network. IEEE. Retrieved 22 July 2011.
  3. ^ "Westinghouse__George.html". PSU.edu. Archived from the original on 17 October 2015. Retrieved 7 October 2017.
  4. ^ Register of Commissioned Officers of the United States Navy. 1865. p. 209.
  5. ^ George Westinghouse article at Encyclopædia Britannica
  6. ^ He later patented the device. It was issued as U.S. patent 76,365 in April 1868, when he was 22. It was reissued as U.S. patent RE3584 in August 1869.
  7. ^ "The Life of a Brakeman – The Neversink Valley Museum of History & Innovation". Retrieved 6 May 2022.
  8. ^ Huber, William R. (2022). George Westinghouse, Powering the World. McFarland & Co. p. 29.
  9. ^ Witzel, Morgen, ed. (2006). Encyclopedia of the History of American Management (1st ed.). Continuum – via Credo Reference.
  10. ^ Geisst, Charles R., ed. (2005). Encyclopedia of American Business History (1st ed.). Facts on File – via Credo Reference.
  11. ^ a b Pittsburgh and Allegheny Illustrated Review. Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania: J. M. Elstner & Co. 1889. p. 32.
  12. ^ Huber 2022, p. 69.
  13. ^ Huber 2022, p. 73.
  14. ^ Moran 2002, p. 42.
  15. ^ Tesla: Inventor of the Electrical Age by W. Bernard Carlson. Princeton University Press. 2013. p. 89.
  16. ^ "William Stanley – Engineering Hall of Fame". Edison Tech Center. 2015. Retrieved 7 October 2017.
  17. ^ "Steam Hammer, Westinghouse Works, 1904". World Digital Library. May 1904. Retrieved 28 July 2013.
  18. ^ a b Bradley, Robert L. Jr. (2011). Edison to Enron: Energy Markets and Political Strategies. John Wiley & Sons. p. 50. ISBN 978-1118192511. Retrieved 7 October 2017 – via Google Books.
  19. ^ Skrabec, Quentin (2007). George Westinghouse: Gentle Genius. New York: Algora Pub. p. 97. ISBN 978-0875865089. OCLC 123307869.
  20. ^ Bradley, Robert L., Jr. (2011). Edison to Enron: Energy Markets and Political Strategies. New York: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-47091-736-7, pp. 28–29
  21. ^ Seifer, Marc (24 October 2011). Marc Seifer, Wizard: The Life and Times of Nikola Tesla, p. 1713. Citadel. ISBN 9780806535562.
  22. ^ Klooster, John W. (2009). John W. Klooster, Icons of Invention: The Makers of the Modern World from Gutenberg to Gates, p. 305. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 9780313347436.
  23. ^ Jonnes, Jill (19 August 2003). Jill Jonnes, Empires of Light: Edison, Tesla, Westinghouse, and the Race to Electrify the World, Edison Declares War. Random House Publishing. ISBN 9781588360007.
  24. ^ Skrabec 2007, p. 127.
  25. ^ a b Tesla: Inventor of the Electrical Age by W. Bernard Carlson. Princeton University Press. 2013. p. 130.
  26. ^ Jill Jonnes (2004). Empires of Light: Edison, Tesla, Westinghouse, and the Race to Electrify the World, Random House, p. 29 [ISBN missing]
  27. ^ Huber 2022, p. 147.
  28. ^ Moran 2002, p. 97.
  29. ^ Huber 2022, p. 139.
  30. ^ Skrabec 2007, p. 135-137.
  31. ^ Carlson, W. Bernard (2013). Tesla: Inventor of the Electrical Age, Princeton University Press, p. 167 [ISBN missing]
  32. ^ Chaim R. Rosenberg (2009). America at the Fair: Chicago's 1893 World's Columbian Exposition. Arcadia Publishing, [ISBN missing] [page needed]
  33. ^ Harnessing Niagara Edison Tech Center
  34. ^ Carlson, W. Bernard (2013). Tesla: Inventor of the Electrical Age, Princeton University Press, pp. 167–173
  35. ^ Skrabec 2007, p. 190.
  36. ^ Christian, Ralph J.; James Gardner (9 September 1978). "National Register of Historic Places Inventory-Nomination: Adams Power Plant Transformer House" (pdf). National Park Service. and Accompanying photos, exterior and interior, from 1978. (2.61 MB)
  37. ^ Prout 1921, p. 190.
  38. ^ Prout, Henry (1921). "A Life of George Westinghouse". American Society of Mechanical Engineers. p. 259.
  39. ^ John and Bette Bosma (April 2006). "Southwest Arizona Ghost Towns Harshaw, Mowry, Washington Camp, Duquesne, Lochiel" (PDF). Retrieved 10 January 2015.
  40. ^ Sherman, James E. & Barbara H. (1969). Ghost Towns of Arizona. University of Oklahoma. ISBN 0806108436.
  41. ^ Prout 1921, p. 252.
  42. ^ a b Huber 2022, p. 44.
  43. ^ a b Prout 1921, p. 294.
  44. ^ Reis 2008.
  45. ^ Leupp 1918, p. 247.
  46. ^ Prout 1921, p. 287.
  47. ^ Shigehiro Nishimura (August 2012). "The rise of the patent department: A case study of Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Company" (PDF). Retrieved 18 October 2024.
  48. ^ Reis, Ed. “A Man for His People.” Mechanical Engineering Magazine October 2008: 32-35
  49. ^ Leupp 1918, p. 254.
  50. ^ Library of Congress Essay. "Inside an American Factory: Films of the Westinghouse Works, 1904". Library of Congress.
  51. ^ "Strike May Cripple Fair". New York Times. 12 September 1903.
  52. ^ Terrell, Ellen. "American Dynamo: The Life of George Westinghouse". Library of Congress.
  53. ^ Wohleber, Curt (1997). ""St. George" Westinghouse". Invention and Technology Magazine.
  54. ^ Reis 2022Small variations of this quote can be found in various sources.
  55. ^ Leupp, Francis Ellington (1918). George Westinghouse, His Life and Achievements. Boston, Little Brown and Co.
  56. ^ Prout 1921, p. 8.
  57. ^ Westinghouse clan gathers here, Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, November 10, 2008
  58. ^ Huber 2022, p. 63.
  59. ^ "Erskine Park". Retrieved 8 September 2024.
  60. ^ "Blaine Mansion". Retrieved 8 September 2024.
  61. ^ Huber 2022, p. 163.
  62. ^ Skrabec 2007.
  63. ^ "Burial Detail: George Westinghouse". ANC Explorer.
  64. ^ Huber 2022, p. 155.
  65. ^ Reis, Ed (2008). "A Man for His People". American Society of Mechanical Engineers. Retrieved 23 September 2024.
  66. ^ "George Westinghouse Medal". ASME. Retrieved 15 September 2024.
  67. ^ "National Register Information System". National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service. 13 March 2009.
  68. ^ "George Westinghouse Timeline". Library of Congress. Retrieved 17 September 2024.Public Domain This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
  69. ^ Library of Congress Essay. "Inside an American Factory: Films of the Westinghouse Works, 1904". Library of Congress.

Bibliography

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